INTRODUCTION
***bric in England is an Ethnic Awareness and Justice concern in that
since
the beginning of the twentieth century concerted efforts have been made to
steal the folk consciousness of the Northern English by denying their
Celtic
and Scandinavian roots, and by substituting ersatz Saxon roots instead.
Ethnic Awareness and Justice in England is concerned to secure the right
of
every non-Saxon English persons to be regarded as being English
irrespective
of race or religion, not only Celtic English, but also Black English and
other. The obvious model for ***braic is Nance's highly successful
reconstruction of Cornish, which Nance called Kernewek. Nance famously
replied to his critics that Kernewek may or may not have been exactly the
same as original Cornish, but it was a form of Cornish, and as such
Kernewek
has gone from strength to strength. Malcontents have reconstructed another
veriety of Cornish called Cornoak. This of course has not lessened Nance's
eminence as a Celtic scholar, but is has put Kernewek to the question with
regards to its authenticity. In order to avoid a similar embarassment with
regard to ***bric I have renounced all copyright in order that other
Celtic
scholars might make their own individual contributions. The most glaring
difference between Kernewek and Cwmbraic in their respective
reconstructions
is the fact that Cornish medieval mystery plays were available to Nance
whereas ***bric left no such trances. Despite this there is a wealth of
written infomation in the form of ***bric place-names together dialect
words
and ***bric words that have entered Standard English. Victorian scholars
of
***bric revealed veritable mines of ***bric vocabulary. Mr. Whittaker in
Volume Two, pages 233 to 329, in his History of Manchester, has provided a
list of three thousand North Country ***bric words that have entered the
vocabulary of Standard English. Furthermore Mr.Davies supplied in a paper
that he contributed to The transactions of the Philological Society in
1885
another long list of North Country ***bric words that have passed into
Standard English. Mr. Davies commented that many low, burlesque, and
obscene
words in the Lanca****re dialect can be traced back to ***bric.
Furthermore,
Mr. Garnet in Volume One, page 171, of the Transaction of the Philological
Society, also supplied a similar list of ***bric words. Elements of
grammar
also exist in some of the ***bric place-names that indicate that ***bric
grammar was not all that different from medieval Welsh grammar. In
addition
translations of the ***bric verses of Aneirin and Taliesin into Welsh
present further proof of the close parallel between Welsh and ***bric
grammar. ***bric can therefore continue where it left off, especially
since
the grammar of Breton possesses elements that are identicle to medieval
Welsh. Differences in grammar can be found in ***bric, especially in the
use
of the definite article, but the one difference above all others that
establishes ***bric as an idependent language seperated from Welsh is the
retention of the vowel-W before nasal plus stop, which is also a feature
of
Breton. Study of surviving ***bric place-names present the unique ability
of
***bric to adopt non-Celtic words. This allows ***braic to adopt the
international words of science and technology instead of creating Celtic
neologisms such as the Welsh teledu for television. Nance expanded the
limited vocabulary of Cornish words that were available to him by
converting
Welsh words into Cornish, so there is no reason why Welsh words cannot
also
be converted into ***bric. Even the vocabulary of Breton has been expanded
by borrowings from Welsh. The edition of the Times newspaper of the 3rd.
January 1991 carried a re****t that first appeared in Le Mond, according to
which Lukiann Kergoat, the head of Breton and Celtic Studies at the
University of Rennes, and chairperson of a committee called Kreizhenn ar
Geriauin, intended to create twenty thousand new Breton word in order to
bring Breton up to date by respelling Welsh words. Evidence of the late
survival of ***bric as a spoken language exists in the place-name
***whinton
meaning Quinton's Valley that contains the French personal name Quinton.
In
addition the survival of ***bric field-names and the presence of three
***bric words in a medieval Further sup****t for the persistence of
***bric,
even as far south as Lincoln****re, is found in Shepherd's Enumeration,
which
in fact was mainly used by knitters. Perhaps the most interesting thing to
have arisen during ***bric's reconstruction is the discovery that ***bric
is
the missing link between Welsh and Cornish. A Welsh speaker might consider
***bric to be archaic, but if ***bric may appear to a Welsh speaker to be
medieval in a modern setting, for example to say I enter the house in
***bric you would use Biblical Welsh and say mi a mwnd yn y tec rather
than
the more contemplorary Welsh wyf i'n mynd yn y teg. This may indeed sound
medieval to a Welsh speaker but not to a speaker of Cornish or Breton.
There
is a further twist. Certain diphthongs such as AI can be pronounced either
as short-E or short-A, for example Nothern English Penyghent is matched by
Scottish Pennigant, both morphemes ghent and gant being derived from the
morpheme gaínt in the original pen y gaínt. A study of ***bric also
reveals
a semantic links between Welsh and Cornish, for example the Welsh
wordchwyl
corresponds in form but not in meaning to the Cornish word whyl, the
semantic link being the ***bric word chwyl as in the Northcountry
Brigantian
word wheel meaning a pothole beneath a fors or waterfall, and the
York****re
place-name Wheldrake meaning Dragons Cave. The Welsh word chwyl means a
turn
or turning and the Cornish word whel means a mine. ***bric provides the
semantic link between Welsh chwyl and Cornish whel in that the ***bric
word
chwyl refers to a pothole beneath a fors, the churning stones being
clearly
visible as the cause of the wheel. Furthermore the place-name Wheldrake
reveals that ***bric chwyl came to mean any pothole, or even a cave, which
semantically is only a short step to the meaning of Cornish word whel.
Incidentally the spelling of the morpheme whel in Wheldrake is identicle
to
Cornish spelling. Late ***bric underwent a series of sound changes that
distinguished it from Welsh, for instance the place-name Leswalt, which
when
recorded was pronounced as leeswalt, arose from the two ancient ***bric
words llis and gwellt meaning lliswellt or a grassy court. Llis and gwellt
is of course the same as modern Welsh llys and gwellt (i.e. Lyswellt), but
the sound change of short-E before labials to short-A turned Lliswellt
into
Lliswallt, which in Welsh means not grassy court but hairy court
(i.e.Llyswallt). Because late ***bric was a spoken language rather than a
written language no attempt was made to create Celtic neologisms when
encountering non-Celtic languages, for example Blennerhasset in ***berland
is derived from the two Celtic words blaín and yr meaning hill+the, and
from
the two Scandinavian words haí+sætr meaning hay+meadow, so we get
hill+the+hay+meadow, which with a little knowledge of Welsh grammar tells
us
that the name in plain English means crest of the hay meadow. This ability
of ***bric to adopt loan words from other languages has three consequences
when increasing the vocabulary of ***braíc, or reconstructed ***bric.
1.. Scandinavian words that exist in English and Welsh may be adopted.
2.. Gaelic words that exist in English and Scots may be adopted.
3.. The international words of science and technology may be adopted
instead of attempting to find Celtic equivalents.
To conclude, the reconstruction of a ***bric vocabulary, though
challenging,
presents no serious problem, but although ***bric changed considerably
over
the centuries it preserved archaisms such as the retention of short-u and
short-o before nasals plus stop, for example the first morpheme of
***berland is short-u and not short-E. ***bric grammar is identicle to
Medieval Welsh grammar, for example ***bric place-names, such as Larbet
and
Eccle Fechan, have even preserved elements of ***bric grammar. It should
also be pointed out the many Romano-British laws, taxes, policing, and
modes
of administration are recorded in the Doomsday Book as having survived in
Brigantia were identicle to laws, taxes, policing, and modes of
administration current in Wales until Henry VII imposed English laws and
administrative procedures upon Wales. Early ***bric was no doubt early
Welsh
of a kind but sound changes and differences in vocabulary later arose that
would seperate Welsh and ***bric into two seperate languages.
top
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Bret. Breton Chs. Che****re c. circa cf. confer Corn. Cornish
Cu.***berland Db. Derby****re Dur. Durham Lancs. Lanca****re Lei.
Leicester****re M.W. Medieval Welsh
Nrth. Northumberland Notts, Notthingham****re Shr. Shrop****re Shrews.
Shrewsbury Staffs. Stafford****re Wor. Worcester****re Wst. Westmorland W.
Welsh Yorks. York****re
***BRIC PLACE-NAMES
A
***bric place-names
Aberruthven: nr. Auchterrarder, Scot., cf. W. aber rudd faen, Corn. aber
ruth ven, (red stone conflux), ***bric *aber rudd vain.
Ashton-in-Makerfield: Lancs.., Ashton c.1225, cf. Ince-in-Makerfield;
cf.W. magwyr & Corn magor (wall or ancient ruin). ***bric *magwy, variant
*magor, see Eaglesfield.
Aspatria: Cu., Aspatric c.1230, a Norse-***bric hybrid, this place-name
preserves a ***bric genitive.
B
Bannock Burn: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. banog bryn. ***bric *bannawk or
banoc bryn
Barpennald: Cu., cf.W. bar pen allt & Corn. bar pen als, (top of chief
cliff). ***bric *bar pen alth
Barroc Fell: Cu., Barroc c.1295, cf. M.W. barawg, a spur. This
place-name
preserves a ***bric adjectival suffix.
Barwick-in-Elmet: cf.W. *Barwyg-yn-Elved, bar (hilltop) and gwyg
(coppice).
Bathgate: Scot., Bathchet, c.1160, Bathkethe c.1337, cf.W.baedd goed &
Corn. both gos, (boar's wood). ***bric * baíth gaíth. NB. the lenition in
the modern name; this is indicative of the persistence of ***bric in the
area.
Birdoswald: Cu., Borddoswald c.1200, cf.W. buarth, (cow fold of dairy);
cf. Burtholm. ***bric *burth
Birkby: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, N. Breta Skogr, (Britton's Wood.); cf.
Briscow.
Blawith: Cu., Blawit c.1276, cf., W. blaedd wydd & Corn. blydd with
(wolf
wood). ***bric *blaíth with Blencarn: Cu.,
Blencarne c.1159, Blenecarn c.1210, Blencarn 1211, cf. W. blaen y carn,
cf. Corn. blyn an carn, (top of the burial mound); ***bric *blaín carn,
blaín y carn
Blencathra: Cu., Blenkarthure c. 1589, cf. W. blaen cader, (throne
summit); ***bric *blaín cadder. The alternative name for this fell is
Saddleback.
Blencogo: Cu., Blenecogou c.1292, cf. W. blaen y cogau & Corn. blyn an
cogas, (hill of cuckoos). ***bric *blaín y cogow. This place name
preserves
a ***bric suffix.
Blencow: Cu. Blenkhaw c.1254. A hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name, *blaín
(haugr) meaning hill top.
Blennerhesset: Cu. Blennerhaiseta c. 1188, a hybrid ***bric-Norse
place-name, *blaín yr haísetr, meaning crest of the hay field. This
place-name establishes that the definite article y became yr before H.
Blindcrake: Cu. Blenecrayc c.1268, cf. W. blaen y crcrake, (summit of
the
rock); ***bric *blaín y craíc.
Brant Fell: Yorks. a hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name meaning steep
hill/mountain. The word brant, together with its variant brent, are still
in
use as a dialect word meaning steep. This is an example of the survival of
***bric in dialect as well as in a place-name.
Bredon: Lei. Briudun c.730, meaning either the summit of a down or a
fort.
Breedon: Wor. Beodun c.722, as above.
Briscow: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, see Birkby.
Burtholm: Cu., Burtholm c.1256, a hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name
meaning
a dairy or cow fold on the spur of a hill. See. Birdoswald. BRYN Lancs. a
hill
C
Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunplelder, cf.W. carn dinas (a mound retreat).
A
dinas was a tem****ary fortified retreat as distinct from caer, which was a
permanent stone-built stronghold such as a castle or farm-house, also cf.
Dinas Sitch Tor, Db. behind the S**** in on S**** Pass.
Calder: Lancs., Kalder c.1200, cf. W. place-names Calettwr and Clettwr,
(hard water, i.e. fast flowing river), W. called dwr; ***bric *caleth
*dwr.
The word cal has acquired a new meaning in Welsh and Cornish, therefore it
is supposed the original was*Calthdwr.
Cambeck: Nth. Camboc c.1169, Cambec c.1622, (a meandering stream).
Camblesford: Yorks. Camelesford c.1311, cf.W. cam y lais, (bend on the
stream). ***bric *cam y lais.
Camerton: Cu., Camerton c. 1150, cf.W. cymmer, (conflux), ***bric
*cwmmer.
Capledre: Scot. Lochere in Linlithgow, cf.W. ceffyl dre, (horse town)
***bric *capel dre, cappel is a dialect word meaning a horse.
Capplerigg: Cu., see Capledre above.
Caraverick: Cu., Caraverick c.1150, the name of a lost settlement in
Leath
Ward of ***berland. Caraverick c.1150, cf.W. caer efrog (farmhouse amid
cowslips), R.D. *cair *afyric. NB. the intrusive y before R and initial E
changed to A.
Carcowe: Wst. a field-name in West Ward of Westmorland. A hybrid
***bric-Norse field-name, *Cair Haugr. The im****tance of a Celtic word
appearing in a field-name is that it indicates a late survival of spoken
***bric in West Ward.
Cardew: Cu., Carthew c.1287, cf. W. caer ddu, (black farmhouse), ***bric
*cair *ddu.
Cardrona: Traqur in Peebles, Scot., Cardronow c. 1500, cf.W. caer
dronau,
(fort circle, i.e., of standing stones), ***bric *cair dronow. This place
name contains the cambric plural -ow.
Cardunneth Pike: Cu., Cardunnoke c.1386, cf.W. caer Dunod, (Donatus'
farmhouse), ***bric *cair Dunoth: see also Dintsmere, Chs., boundary of
Donatus, also see Dinting, Chs., Dintinge, c. 1226, place of Donatus,
Dinthill, Shrews., Dunthill c. 1200, hill of Dontatus, ***bric *Dunoth.,
Cardurnock: Cu., Cardrunnoke, c. 1386, cf.W. caer *durenog (pebbly
farmhouse), c f. W. duren (pebble, steel, flint). NB. the disappearance of
E
between consonant R and nasal N. ***bric *cair durnoc.
Carfrae: Scot., Lauderdale in Berwick****re, cf.W. caer fre (hill fort).
NB. this place-name has preserved the lenition of B into V. R.V. *cair fre
Cark: Lancs. Karke c.1491, cf.W. careg (stone). NB. the disappearance of E
between the consonants R and K. ***bric * ca***bric
Carkin: Yorks. Karrecan c. 1200, Kercan, c. 1200, cf.W. careg can (white
stone). See also Cargo, Cu. From Carec Haugr, hybrid Celtic-Norse
place-name
meaning White Hill. NB. the disappearance of E after R and before C.
***bric
*carc can.
Carnetly: Cu., Carnthelaue c.1230. (Burial Mound of Teilo.), cf.,
Llanteilo in Wales. NB. that this place-name appears to preserve an
aspirate
mutation. ***bric * carn teilo.
Carwath: Scot., Lanark****re, Karnewid c.1179, Carnewithe c.1315,
Carnwith
c. 1451, cf.W. carn y gwydd (durial mound of trees), cf. Corn. carn an
gwyth. ***bric *carn y gwydd.
Carrick: Wst., cf. local dialect word currock and currick meaning a
cairn
or heap of stones, cf. Carrick in Scotland. The survival of ***bric words
in
Scots and North Country dialect serves as the basis of the argument that
***bric never really died out.
Carrock Fell: Cu., Carroc c. 1208, cf.W. carog (fenced, walled, or
fortified).***bric *caroc.
Carwinley: Cu., Carwyndelawe c. 1292, Karwendelowe c.1281, Carwyndelowe
c.1300, cf. W. caer Wenddoleu (Gwenddoleu's Castle). ***bric *cair
Wenddolaw.
Castle Carrock: Cu., Castelcairoc x.1165, Castelcarroc c. 1212, cf. W.
castell caerog. ***bric *castel cairoc.
Castel Hewin: Cu., Castelewyne c.1272, Castle Hewin c.1794, cf.W.
castell
Ewain (Owen's castle). This castle is legended to have been the castle of
Eugenius Caesarius, a king of ***bria who expelled the Angles and
re-established British rule after the Saxons had been driven out. ***bric
*castel Ewain.
Catterlen: Cu., Caderlen c. 1165, cf. W. cader llan (hermitage throne).
Cader in this case is from the Greek word kathedra meaning a bishop's
throne. ***berland, as well as Elmet and Cornwall, were Christian
throughout
the sub-Roman era, and were not reconverted to Christianity by Irish
monks.
Catterton: Yorks. Cadreton c.1230, a hybrid English and ***bric
place-name
meaning fort enclosure. NB. This place-name preserves a Saxon word just as
Blennerhasset has preserved a Norse word.
Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunpelder, the burial mound of Dionysius.
Chadderton: Lancs. see Catterton.
Cheadle: Chs. Chedle c.1153 (wood hill). A hybrid ***bric and English
place name.
Cheetham: Lancs. Chetham c. 1226 (wood pasture) A hybrid ***bric and
English place name (ham=arable land).
Clesketts: Cu. Closchet c.1245, cf.W. clas coed (glebe wood), clas is an
enclosed space, a green covering of grass, or glebe land. ***bric *clas
caidd.
Comberbach: Chs. Comburbach c.1333 (stream of the Cwmbro), cf.W. cymro,
Corn. kembro, from Prythonic ***brogi meaning a compatriot. ***bric *
*cwmbro boc. NB. In ***bric W and O did not become Y before nasal plus
stop
as in Welsh, Breton, and Cornish. This is a distinctive feature of
***bric,
one of several that indicate that ***bric was a separate language even
though similar to Welsh.
Combermere: Chs. ***bremara c.1157, (compatriot wasteland). ***bric
*cwmbru myr.
Comberford: Staffs, this indicates that ***bric was once spoken in the
North Midlands, see also. Wor. Comberton, Lancs Comberhalgh. Condor:
Lancs.
Condovere c.1246, cf.W. cam dwfr (crooked waters). ***bric *cam dwfr.
Coulderton: Cu., Culdreton c.1180, cf.W. cul dir (narrow land). ***bric
*cul dir. This is a very interesting place name because it acquired the
English word ton in the 12th.century, which would indicate that it was
about
this time that Scots began to replace ***bric in ***berland, which was the
last refuge of spoken ***bric.
Couwhencatte: Cu., ***quencath c.1169. (Gwencad's valley).
Gwencad is a personal name that means White Battle. ***bric *cwm
Cwencadd.
NB. the mutation of G into C.
Culcheth: Lancs., Culchet c.1201, Kulcheth c.1246, cf. W. cul goed
(narrow
wood), ***bric *cul gaidd.
Culgaith: Cu., Culchet c.1203, Culgayth c.1232, cf. W. cul goed (narrow
wood). Culgayth and Culgaith are verifications of the Reconstructed
***bric
*cul gaidd.
***cath: Cu., ***cache c.1292, cf.W. cwm cach (dung valley), ***bric
*cwm
cach.
***crook: Cu., ***cruk c.1295, cf.W. cwm crug (valley mound), ***bric
*cwm
cruc.
***divock: Cu., ***devoc c. 1244. Devoc's Valley, Prythonic personal
name
Dubacos meaning Dark or Swathy Man, cf.W. duog (dark), ***bric *dufoc. NB.
the persistence of the intrusive F, which is absent in the Welsh version
of
this adjective.
***mersdale: Cu. ***bredal c.1227. A hybric ***bric and Norse place name
meaning the Valley of the Cymru, cf. also ***berland: ***braland c.945,
cf.
also ***berhill in Derby****re, ***berworth in York****re and Lincoln****re,
see also ***berbach cf. W. Cymru, ***bric . NB. The persistence of stop B
after nasal M, and the persistence of W before nasal plus stop.
***rew: Cu., ***reu c.1200, ***rew c.1209, cf.W. cwm rhiw, (valley
slope).
***bric *cwm riw.
***whinton: Cu., ***quinton c.1227. Quinton's Valley. Quinton is a
Norman-French personal name. This place-name is proof that ***bric was
spoken after William Duke of Normandy succeeded Edward the Confessor.
Crakeplace Hall: Cu., Crakeplace c.1288, cf.W. craig plas (stone manor).
***bric *craic plas.
Crew: Chs. Cruwe c.1190, Cruue c.1288, cf.W. cryw (a ford or stepping
stones), cf.
Crewgarth in ***berland,cf. W. cryw garth (ford farm)..***bric *cryw
garth
Crich: Db., Cryc c.1009, cf.W. crug (a hill). ***bric *cruc.
Crickheath: Shr., Cruchet c.1272, cf.W. crug (a mound). ***bric *cruc
gaidd (wood containing a burial mound).
Crofton Bridge: Cu., formerly Waspatrickwath, meaning the Ford of
Patrick's
Servant. Patrick was a local saint who attained fame in Ireland,
Gwaspatrick
or Sevant of Patrick was a local fore-name.
Cruckton: Shr. Crocton c.1272, Crokton c.1308, cf. W. crug (burial
mound),
***bric *cruc.
D
Dacre: Cu., Dakre c.1292, cf. W. deigre (a tear drop). Dacre refers to a
nearby stream, cf. Dacre in York****re. NB. that the Welsh diphthong EI,
pronounced as I, eye, and aye in English is pronounced as short A in
***bric. ***bric *daicre.
Dacre Beck: Cu., Dakerbek c.1323, ***bric *daicre boc (tear stream).
Dalkieth: Scot., Dolchet c.1144, Dalkethe c.1337, cf.W. dal coed (meadow
wood). ***bric* dal caidd.
Dalfibble: Scot., Dumfries, cf.W. dal pebyll (spread tent), ***bric*dal
febyl. NB. the mutation of P into F in this ***bric place-name.
Dane: Chs. Dauuen c.1220, Daan c.1416, cf.W. dafn (a drip), cf. also
Daven****t in Che****re meaning 'Drip Paved Road'. ***bric*dafn.
Desoglin: Cu., Dassoglen c.1596. Oglen is related to the Welsh ogl
meaning
full of motion or life, in Welsh das means a heap. This place name could
be
construed to mean a heap of a certain substance that is full of certain
living beings, but it probably refers to nearby marshy ground. ***bric
*das
oglyn.
Devoke: Duvokeswater c. 1205, Duffockiswatir c.1280, the place-name
means
Dubacos' Lake, water referring to a lake or loch.
Dinthill: Shrews. Duntull c.1299, (Donatus' hill), cf. Dintsmere: Chs.
Donatus' boundary mark, also Dinting: Chs. Duntinge c.1226,
(Donatus'place),
Dinwiddie: Scot. Roxburgh, Dunwedy c.1504, cf. Dunwoody in Dumfries, cf.
W. gwyddfa (woody place, a Bardic seat), and cf. Gwyddfa (Snowdon). NB.,
Dinwiddie and Dunwoody would be suitable places to hold a Scottish
Eisteddfod.
Dollerline: Cu., Dallerline c.1598, cf.W. dol ar lefniad (loop on the
smoothness). ***bric *dol ar lefni. This place name refers to an ox-bow.
Douglas: Lancs., cf.W. glais (a stream), see also Diggles in Lanca****re,
both meaning black stream. ***bric *du glais, NB. that the adjective
precedes the noun. Douglas is also the surname of a well known Lanca****re
family, and is also used as a forename.
Dove Dale: Db. Duuendale c.1296, cf. River Dove in Derby****re, Dufan
c.951, Duue c. 1228, cf. also Dove Holes in Derby****re. ***bric *dufyn,
diminutive of *duf meaning dark. Dover Beck: Notts. Doverbec c.1227, cf.W.
dwfr (waters). ***bric *dwfr boc (stream of waters).
Dunreggit: Scot., Fort of Rheged, see Rochdale. Rheged was a British
kingdom that included S.E. Scotland and N.W. England. ***bric *dwn regedd.
Dreva: Scot., Tweed. Cf.W. y dre fa (the village place). ***bric *y dre
fa.
NB. the lenition.
Drumburgh: Cu., Drumboc c.1225. Old Welsh drwm bach (small ridge).
***bric
*drwm bach.
E
E Eccles: Lancs. Eccles c.1200, cf. Yorks Ecclesall, Eccleshale c.1205,
cf. Ecclesfield, Ecclesfeld c.1109, Eccle****ll, and Lancs. Eccleston,
Ecclestine c. 1190, Great & Little Eccleston, Ecleston c.1285, and Db
Eccles
Pike, Ecclesbourne, and Staff. Eccleshall, and Drh. Egglescliffe, and Cu.
Eglesfield, Eglesfeld c.1290, and Scot. Ecclefechan, cf. W. eglwys & Corn.
Eglos, NB. the archaicism of these place-names in that the final vowel
remained unchanged. ***bric *egles.
Eddleston: Scot. Formerly Pentiacob, Jacob's penthouse. ***bric *pent
Iacob
Eglesbreth: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. eglwys braith. ***bric egles braith
Etherow: Chs. Ederhou c.1221, Ederou c.1285, Edderowe c.1290, cf. W. edd
(glide), and haw (sluggish). ***bric *edd yr how.
Ewanrigg: Co. Evenrigg c.1295, Ouenrig c.1332, Owain's Ridge. ***bric
*Owain
G
Gawswoth: Chs. Gouseworth c. 1276, cf.W. gof (a smith). ***bric *gof
Gilcrux: Cu. Killecruce c. 1175, cf.W. cil y crug (retreat by the
hillock). ***bric *cil y cruc.
Glasgow: Scot. Glasgu c.1136, cf.W. glas gau (green hollow). ***bric
*glas
gow.
Glencoyn: Cu.Glencaine c.1212 Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291, cf.W.
glyn
cawn (valley of reed). ***bric *glyn cown Glencoyne: Wst. Glencaine
c.1212,
Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291, Glenkwent c.1577, Glenkwen c.1622. NB.
This and the above place-name have been influence by the imposition of the
English Gaelic word cain, meaning beautiful. The elements of English
Gaelic
in place-names are too few to attempt the reconstruction of English
Gaelic.
Glendermackin: Cu. Glenermakon c.1278, cf.W. glyn y magon (valley of
berries.) ***bric *glyn y macon. Glenderterra: Cu. Glunduvar c.1247,
Glenderterray c.1729, cf.W. glyn dwfr terion (valley of pure water.)
***bric
*glyn dwfr terion. NB. The 18thcent. place-name has preserved *terion.
Glenridding: Wst. Glenredyn c.1292, cf.O.W. glinn redin, W. glyn rhedyn.
Glensax: Scot. Peebles, and Gensaxon in Dumfries, cf.W. glyn sais (Saxon
Valley.) ***bric *glyn saix. NB. The ***bric archaism preserves the
penultimate
C. Goyt: Chs. Recorded as both Gwith and Gote in the 14th cent., cf.W.
gwyth (a narrow channel), Corn. goth & gwith. ***bric *gwyth & goth. NB.
The
Welsh diphthong WY appears either as WI or O in ***bric and Cornish. The
pronunciation of long O as the diphthong OI was once a feature of the
local
dialect.
Govan: Scot. Mid Lothian, Guun c.1134, Guuan c. 1150, Govan c. 1275,
Gwuan
c. 1275, cf. W. ban (point, hill, or crest). ***bric *gwovan also *govan
(a
small hill or slight crest of land). Gragareth: The Three Men of
Gragareth:
Yorks, Whernside, a topographical feature. Could be reconstructed into
Welsh
as y tri mein y gorgaered, meaning the three rocks (y tri mein) of the
limit
(gor) of the city wall (gaered). ***bric *y tri mein y gor gairedd.
H
Hesketh: Lancs. Heschate c.1288, Heskayth c.1298, c.W. hais coed
(prickle
wood). ***bric *hais caidd. Heskin: Lancs. Heskyn c.1257, cf. W. hesgen
(sedge, rush). ***bric *hescen.
Hints: Staff. Hintes c.1199, also Hints, Shr. Hintes c. 1242, Hyntes
c.1292, cf.W. hynt (road, way, course). ***bric *hynt
I
Ince: Chs.Ynes c.1100, also Ince in Makerfield, cf.W. ynys. ***bric
*ynys
Inchkieth: Scot., cf.W. ynys coed (island wood). ***bric *ynys caith.
K
Kent: Lancs. A river-name, also Kennet, cf.W.cynnwyd (primary element).
***bric *cynnwith, var. *cynnoth.
Kenyon: Lancs. Kenien c.1212, cf.W. crug Enion (Enion's burial mound).
***bric *cruc Enion.
Ketton: Rut. Ketene c.1174, Chetena c.1146, cf.W. coeden (a tree).
***bric
*caidden
Kieth: Scot. Mid Lothian, this has inspired the personal name Kieth,
which
means a wood, cf. W. coed, Corn. cos, and Bret. Koaz.. ***bric *caidd
Kirkbrynnok: Cu. c.1339. A lost place-name, Kirkja Brynach, Brynach's
Church. Note the adoption of a Norse word yet Celtic grammar.
Kirkcambeck: Cu. Camboc c.1177, Kirkecamboc c.1280. Church (kirkja) on
the
crooked stream (camboc).
Kirkley: Nth. Crikelawa c. 13th. Cent. A hybrid Celtic Saxon word
meaning
hill (cruc) hill (hlaw).
L
Lamplough: Cu. Lamplou c. 1150, cf.W. llan plwyf, (parish church), cf.
Corn. lan plov. ***bric *lan plof.
Lanark: Scot. Cf.W. llanerch (hay-field). ***bric *lanarch. NB. The
short
E before R plus stop has become short A.
Landican: Cu. Landekan c. 1281, cf. Llandegfan in Anglesay, Tegfan's
Church. ***bric *lan decfan. NB. Note the lenition.
Lanercost: Cu. Lanercost c. 1271, cf.W. llanerch Awst, Augustus's
hay-field. ***bric *lan Owst.
Lanrekaythin: Cu. Lanrecaithin c.1210. A lost place-name, cf.W. llanerch
eithin (meadow of furze). ***bric *lanarch aithin.
Larbet: Scot., Sterling****re, Lethberth c. 1196, cf.W. leddberth
(semi-bush). ***bric *leddberth.
Laver: Yorks. Lauer c. 1307, also. Laversdale in ***berland, Laverton in
York****re, a river-name, cf.W. llafr (spreading) ***bric * lafer.
Leeds: Yorks. Loidis c.730 (Bede), Ledes c.1196, possible a river-name
meaning flowing. Leen: Notts. Liene c.1200, also Lyne in Northumberland,
Lina c.1050, cf.W. lliant (torent). ***bric *lian. NB. Absence of final S.
Leswalt: Scot. Galloway, cf.W. llys wellt (grassy court of manour
house).
***bric *lys walt. NB. Note the change of short E into short A before
liquid
plus stop. In Welsh gwallt means hair. Leven: Chs. A river-name,
Levene c.12^0, also Leven in Lanca****re and York****re, cf.W. llyfniad
(smootness). ***bric *lyfeni. Lickle: Lancs. River-name, Licul c.1140,
cf.O.W. llig (gliding out or through). ***bric *licol (abounding in water
courses).
Lindefferon: Scot. Fife, see Hint, cf.W. llyn dwr hynt (flowing water
course). ***bric*lin dwr hynt.
Lindow: Chs. cf.W. llyn ddu (black lake). Lindreth: Cu. cf.W. llyn ddrud
(flow-rapid, i.e. a torrent). ***bric *lin ddrudd.
Lingmell Crag: cf W. grug moel craig (heather-bald crag). ***bric * ling
mail craic.
Linlithgow: Scot. Linlithcou c.1150, cf.W. llyn llaith cau (lake wet
hollow). ***bric *lin laith cow. Liscard: Chs.
Lisenecark c.1256, cf.W. llys y carreg (stone manour house). ***bric lis
yn carrec. NB. The definite article yn.
Liverpool: Lancs. Liverpul c.1194, Litherpol c.1222, cf. W. llifr pwl
(conflux pool) and litthr pwl (slip pool). This is a reference to a small
pool that gave haven to fi****ng boats in medieval times, and which later
served as a dock, but which has since been filled in. ***bric *lifr pwl,
*lithr pwl.
Lothersdale: Yorks. Loderesden c.1202, Lothereston c.1285, also
Lauderdale
in Scotland, cf.W. lleidr (bandit), and cf. Corn lader (a thief). ***bric
*
cwm laiddr (bandit valley).
Lyne: Cu. Luene c.1292. ***bric *lefeni. See Leven above. Lyvennet: Wst.
River-name Levenyd c.1292, Leveneth c.1292. This river is called Llwyfenyd
in the Welsh translation of Taliesin's original ***bric poem Urien of
Rheged. ***bric *lofenydd.
Lizard: Shp. Lusgerde c.664, lisgarde c.1291, cf.W. llys garth (court
farm). ***bric *lys garth.
M
Mabbin Hill: Wst. personal name Mabon.
Macefen: Chs. Masefen c.1260, cf.W. maes y ffin (field at the boundary).
***bric *mais y ffin.
Maidencastle: Cu. formerly Carthonock c.1589, Thannock's Castle.
Mallerstang: Wst. Malrestang c.1223, Malvestang c.1228, cf.W. moel fre
(bald mountain), and cf. Nor. stongr (staff). ***bric *mail fre stang.
Mamhead: Db. Mammeheved c.1242, cf.W. maen (a stone), cf.Manchester,
Mansfield, Mamesfeld c.1093, Mam Tor, etc. ***bric *main. NB. This place
name includes the Norse word for head.
Manor: Scot., Peebles, Maner c.1323, cf.W. maenor (a district marked by
stones, or a manor house). ***bric *mainor.
Mary****t: Cu. formerly Aylnfoote c.1656. The river Ayln was called the
Alavna in Roman times. Ayln foot means the mouth of the Ayln; this is a
Celtic turn of phrase. Sir Humphrey Senhouse changed Aylnfoot into
Mary****t
after his wife Mary.
Maughonby: Cu. Merchamby c.1254. A ***bric-Norse hybrid place-name
meaning
Mercion's farm, from Roman personal name Marcianus. NB. The survival of
Romano-British personal names would suggest the survival of a
Romano-British
population.
Meckfen: Scot, Perth****re, Mekfen c. 1226, Mecven c.1443, cf.W. mign
maen
(bog stone). ***bric *myc fain.
Megget Water: Scot., Selkirk****re, also Meggeth, Cu., cf.W. mignydd (a
bog), also mignoedd (bogs). ***bric * mygydd, pl. *mygaidd. Meigle: Scot.,
Perth****re, Migdele in The Legend of Saint Michael, cf.W. mign dol (bog
meadow). ***bric *mig dol.
Melkinthorpe: Wst. Melcanetorp c.1150, cf. O.W. personal name Mailcun,
cf.O.Ir. Maelcian.
Mellor: Lancs. Melver c.1246, also Mellor Db. Melner c.1330, cf.W. moel
fre (bald hill). ***bric *mail fre.
Melrose: Scot., cf.W. moel rhos, also Corn. mol ros (bald heath).
***bric
* mail ros.
Menstrie: Scot. Clackmannen, Mestry c.1315, Menstry c.1392, cf.W. maes y
tre, also Corn. mes an tre (village of the open plain). ***bric *mais tre,
and *mais yn tre. NB. The spellings menstry suggest that the definite
article became yn before a dental.
Methvan: Scot., Perth****re, Methven c.1211, cf.W. medd faen, also Corn.
meth ven (mead stone). ***bric *medd fain.
Migvie: Scot., Stratherrich, cf.W. mign fa (a boggy place). ***bric* mig
fy Morcambe Bay: Lancs. Cf. W. mor cam (crooked sea). NB. This is an
example
of a trap for the unwary. Morcambe Bay was suggested by in Whitaker's The
History of Manchester 1771, as the sight of Ptolemy's Marikambe. There is
a
Marricambe Bay in ***berland whose origin is obscure. Pennines is another
such trap. The original name was Riggings, meaning the Ridges. The name
Pennines is an adaptation of the Appenines in Italy.
Morphie: Scot., Kincardine, cf.W. mor fa (sea place). ***bric * mor fy.
N
Newton Arlosh: Cu. Arlosk c.1185, cf.W. llosg (fire). ***bric *arlosc
(land cleared by burning) NB. Arlosh contains the intensive prefix ar-
(over), this indicates that such prefixes were in use in ***bric. Niddrie:
Scot., Edinburgh, ****ref c.1290, Nodref c.1336, cf.W. newydd dref (new
town), also Corn. noweth dref. ***bric * now dref. Noe: Db. A river-name,
Noue c.1300, cf.W. nofio (to swim). ***bric nofio (to flow or to float).
O
Ochiltree: Scot., Kyle and Galloway, Uchiltre c.1304, Uchiltrie c.1406,
cf. W uchel tre (high village), also cf. Corn. ughel tre. ***bric *uchel
tre. Ogilvie: Scot., Perth****re, cf.W. uchel fa (high place), also cf.
Corn.
ughel va. ***bric *uchel vy.
P
Panbridge: Scot., Forfar****re, Pannebride c 1261, cf.W. pant Brigid
(Briget's valley). ***bric * pan y Brigidd. NB. The G is a jod.
Panmure: Scot., Forfar****re, Pannemor c. 1261, cf.W. pant mawr (big
valley), also cf. Corn. pans mur. ***bric *pan y mowr.
Pant: Scot. (Stair Parish in Ayr****re), cf.W. pant (valley), cf. Corn.
pans. ***bric *pant. Pant: Wst. a field-name in Kendell Ward, cf.W. pant.
***bric *pant. NB. Field-names indicate a late survival of ***bric.
Pardovan: Scot. Linlithgow****re, Purduuyn c. 1282, Pardovin c. 1542, cf.
W. par ddwfn (deep field), also Pardovingi****ll, Scot. Renfrew****re.
***bric
*par ddwfn.
Parton: Scot. Cf.W. perth (a bush). ***bric *perth.
Parwich: Db. Peuerwich c.966, cf.W. pefr wyg (bright farm or copse).
***bric *pefr wic
. Patterdale: Cu. Patrichesdale c. 1148. NB. Patrick's valley.
Peebles: Scot. Cf.W. pabell (a tent or pavillion). ***bric *pabel.
Peffer: Scot. Cf.W. pefr (bright). ***bric *pefr.
Pencaitland: Scot. Penketland c.1296, cf.W. pen coed llan (end of the
wood), cf.Corn. pen cos lan. ***bric *pen caidd lan.
Penhurrock: Wst. c.1777. NB. Currock and currick are local words for a
heap of stones or a cairn. The currock in question is a stone circle on a
tumulus, grid 83-629104.
Pen Howe: Wst. a field-name in Kendall ward, a hybrid ***bric-Norse
place-name, pen haugr.
*****tone: Scot. Selkirk, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend).
***bric
*pen ystrum. *****tone: Yorks. Peningeston c.1199, cf.W. pen yr
ystrum.***bric *pen yn ystrum. Pennystone: Scot. Kirkmabrek, cf.W. pen yr
ystrum (head of the bend). ***bric *pen ystrum.
Penicuik: Scot. Edinburgh, cf.W. pen y coed, cf. Corn. pen an cok.
***bric
*pen y coc. NB. This place-name, together with Blencogo, determines that
the
ultimate C in coc became G in the plural, hence sing. *coc pl. *cogow.
Penketh: Lancs. Penket c. 1242, Penketh c. 1259, cf.W. pen coed (wood
end)
cf. Corn. pen cos, cf. Bret. Pen koad. ***bric *pen caidd.
Penkridge: Staffs. Pencric c.958, cf.W. pen crug. ***bric *pen cruc
Penman****el: Scot. Berwick****re, a hybrid ***bric and Norse place-name
containing Norse skali (a shelter), cf.W.pen maen. ***bric *pen main
Pennigant: Scot. Roxburgh, cf.W. pen y gaint (end of the plain).
***bric*pen y gaint (end of the plateaux). Penyghent: Yorks. Penegent
c.1307. NB. Alternative pronunciations for the diphthong AI.
Pennymure: Scot. Roxburgh, cf. W. pen y mur (end of thewall). ***bric
*pen
y mur.
Penersax: Scot. Dumfries****re, cf.W. pen y sais (hill of the Saxon).
***bric *pen yr sacs.
Penpont: Scot. Dumfries, cf.W. pen pont (bridge end), cf. Penpons in
Cornwall. ***bric *pen pont.
Penrith: Cu. Penred c. 1167, Penreth c. 1185, Penerith c.1367, cf.W. pen
rhyd (ford end), cf.Corn. pen res. ***bric *pen rydd.
Pensax: Wor. Pen*** c 1231 (Saxon hill).
Penty: Scot. Lanark****re, cf.W. pendy (main house, i.e. manor house).
NB.
No lenition in penty.
Peover: Chs. Peuere c. 1277, cf.W. pefr (bright). ***bric *pefr.
Pilling: Lancs. Pylin c.1246, cf.W. pyll (pool or creek). ***bric* pylen
(diminutive, small pool or creek).
Plenmellior: Nb. Plenmenewre c.1256, Playnmelor c.1279, cf.W. blaen moel
vre (summit of bald mountain). ***bric *(mar) plain mail vre. NB. The
initial sharp mutation of B into P indicates that explained.
Plenploth: Scot., cf.W. blaen y plwyf (parish front or before the
parish).
***bric *(mar) plain plof
Poltragow: Cu. Poltraghaue c.1485, cf.W. pwll trachau (hills protruding
into lowland). ***bric *pol trachow.
Polmaise: Scot. Stirling****re, cf.W. pwll maes (field pool). ***bric
*pol
mais.
Pontheugh: Scot. Berwick****re, Hugh's Bridge.
Preesall: Lancs. Preshoved c.1190. A Hybridf ***bric and Norse
place-name
meaning Brushwood Head, cf.W. prys (brushwood, fuel), cf.Corn pres
(meadow).
RC, *prys.
Presmennan: Scot. East Lothian, Presmunet c. 1160, cf. W. prys mynedd
***bric *prys monedd. NB. O before nasal plus stop remains unaltered.
Prenlas: Scot. Leslie Parish in Fife, cf.W. pren glas (green plank). NB.
The lenition in Prenlas. ***bric* pren las. NB. Lenition.
Priorsdale: Cu. Presdale c.1280, cf.W. prys.
R
Raswraget: Cu. a lost place-name in Eskdale Ward, Roswrageth c.1169,
cf.W.
rhos wragedd (woman moor). ***bric * ros wragedd.
Redmain: Cu. Redeman c.1188, cf.W. Rhyd y Maen (ford of stone) in
Dolgelly. ***bric *ryd y main.
Roch: Lancs. River-name, Rachet c. 1292, cf.W. rheged (liberality,
largess, bounty). Rheged, an ancient Romano-British and Christian kingdom
in
England during the Dark Ages. ***bric * Regedd. Rochdale: Lancs. Rachedal
c.1195, Rachedham c.1193, (valley of the river Roch.)
Roose: Yorks. Rossa c. 1135, also Roose in Derby****re, Rosse c.1156,
Roose
in Che****re, Roose c.1336, also Roos and Rossal in Lanca****re, cf.W. rhos
(moor, heath). ***bric *ros.
Ruthven: Scot. Perth****re, cf.W. rhudd faen (red stone), cf.Corn. ruth
ven. ***bric rudd fain.
S
Seisdon: Staffs. Saiesdona c. 1130, Seisdon c.1243, Saxon's Down, cf.W,
sais (Saxon), cf. Corn. saws (saxon). NB. Compare with Penersax and
Glensax.
***bric *sais.
Sherbourn-in-Elmet: Yorks. Silva Elmete c.730, Elmed saeta (Bede), Elmet
c. 800, Elmete c.1212, Elmeticos found on a tombestone in Carnarvan, cf.W.
Elvyd.
Soss Moss: Chs. Gael. sos. It is interesting to find a Gaelic place-name
so far south.
T
Talkin Fell: Cu. Talkenfell c.1589, cf. W.& Corn., tal (brow) and can
(white), Bret. Tal kan. ***bric *tal can,
Tallentire: Cu. Tanentire c.1160, cf.W. tal y tir (end of the land),
Corn.
tal an tyr. ***bric *tal yn tir, NB. The definite article before dental.
Tarnmonath Fell: Cu. This is a hybrid ***bric and Norse place-name, cf.
W.
mynydd, (mountain) cf.Corn meneth. Tarn from tjorn. ***bric *monedd. NB.
This place-name preserves the ***bric word monedd as monath. The vowels O
and U before nasal plus stop did not in ***bric, unlike the rest of the
P-Celtic languages, experience sound change. This in itself is sufficient
to
establish ***bric as a separate language in itself, and not just a dialect
of Welsh. Note also the ability of ***bric to adopt load words such a
tjorn.
Tarvin: Chs. Tervin c.1209, cf.W. terfyn (boundary), from Lat. terminus.
Teman: Cu. Tenman c.1346, Temayne c.1568, cf.W. tan maen (fire stone),
cf.Corn. ten men. ***bric * tan main. NB. Tean bonfires were lit at May
Eve
and Halloween in the Northern England and cattle were passed through two
bonfires to cure murrain, tean, pron. tee-an, is a dialect word for a
bonfire.
Tercrosset: Cu. Torcrossoc c.1193, cf.W. croesog (abounding in crosses),
cf. Corn. crowsek. ***bric *tor crosoc. viz. Welsh place-names such as Tor
y
Mynydd,
Terregles: Scot. Galloway, formerly Traveregles, cf. Corn. place-name
Treveglos (church town or a village containing the parish church). ***bric
*tref yr egles.
Torpenhow: Cu. Torpennoc c.1163, cf. W. penog (abounding in peaks). C.
*torpenoc.
Torwood: Scot. Dunfrie****re. According to one theory that is put forward
from time to time itinerant Cornish miners living amongst the Anglo-Saxons
of Scotland were responsible for this Celto-Saxon hybrid.
Trabroun: Scot., in Lauderdale, Treuerbrun c.1170, cf.W. tref y bryn
(village on the hill), also Trabroun in Haddington, Scotland. ***bric
*tref
yr bryn. NB.Definite article.
Trenant: Scot. Edinburgh, formerly Trevernent, cf.W. tref y neintydd
(town
of the steep sided valley). ***bric * tref yr neint. NB. Note the definite
article and the ***bric plural of the word nant.
Traprain: Scot. Haddington,Trepren c.1335, cf.W. trefbren (plank
village).
It if possible that this settlement was composed of scalis, which consists
of planks covered in turves and fa****oned in a circular pattern, the ends
of
the planks being fixed by a circle of stones, the original for Hobbit Hole
..***bric *tre pren NB. No lenition.
Treales: Chs. cf. W. tref y llys (village containing the court, which is
to say the court of the local dengi or ruler and tax collector).
Trevercraig: Scot. Carrick, cf.W. tref y craig (village of stone), also
Trevercrageis: Ayr****re in Scotland. ***bric * tref yr craic.
Triermain: Cu. Treverman c.1169, cf.W. tref y maen (village of stone).
***bric *tref yr main.
Troloss: Scot. Lanark****re, cf.W. tre llwst (village tail), cf. Corn.
tre
lost. ***bric * tre lwst.
Trusty's Hill: Scot. This place-name refers to Tristan who was a local
chief, viz. the legend of Tristan and Isolde.
Tulketh: Lancs. cf. W. twll coed (cave or pit wood). ***bric *twl caidd.
W
Warren Burn: Nb. Warnet c.1157, cf.W. gwernydd (alder trees, or a bog or
marsh). ***bric*gwarnydd. NB. E before R plus stop becomes A.
Watermellock: Cu. Wethermelok c.1253, cf.W. gwydr moelog (green or blue
baldness, i.e. a heath). ***bric *gwydr mailoc.
Werneth Low: Chs. Wernyth c.1352, cf,W, gwernydd (alder trees).
***bric*gwernydd.
Wharf: Yorks. A river-name, Verbeia, meaning a winding river, Weorf
c.963,
Werf c.1112, Warf c. 1155, Hwef c.1155. ***bric *gwerf & *gwarf. NB. The
pesent name is from the Norse word hvarf, which means a bend. Note also
how
E before R became A in the second spelling. This sound change is a feature
of ***bric.
Winister: Wst. Winster c.1170, cf.Gwensteri (white stream) in a verse by
Taliesin. ***bric *gwyn ysteri.
Winwick: Lancs. Winequic c.1170, Wynewich c.1212, cf.W. gwyn wyg (white
village), cf.Corn. gwyn wyk. ***bric gwyn wyc.
Y
Yeavering: Nb. Adgefrin (Bede), Yever c.1242, Yevre c.1329, also
Yeavering
Bell, a nearby hill, cf. W geifr ryn (goat's hill), cf.Corn. gever bryn.
***bric *geifr ryn. NB. G pronounced as a jod, as in Welsh.
Yanwath: near Penrith, cf.W. un (one, only, single). ***bric *un wadd.
(only ford). NB. Gwadd is a loan word from Norse vadr meaning a ford.
top
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PHONOLOGY
Below is an accound of the sound changes that occurred in the
development
of modern P-Celtic languages from Prythonic
Prythonic short A Prythonic long-A Prythonic short E Ptythonic long
E
Prythonic short I Prythonic long I Prythonic short O Prythonic long O
Prythonic short U Prythonic long U
Prythonic short-A remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
***bric. Examples of Prythonic short-A can be found in many ***bric
place-names Prythonic long-A changed into long-O or O-mega in proto-Welsh,
proto-Cornish, proto-Breton, and proto-***bric, O-mega subsequently
changed
into the diphthong short O anf U (OU) in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, but
Q-mega is still a feature of North British speech and can be found in
medieval Cambok and Kirkecambok. Prythonic short-E remained unchanged in
Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, but in ***bric short-E changed into short-A
before the consonants L, and R, as in the place-names Leswalt, Warren
Burn,
Parton, and Tarvin. An intrusive short-E also developed in ***bric between
the consonants stop plus L and R ass inLotherdale. Short-E disappeared
between L and R followed by a stop, for example Cardurnock, cf. Welsh
durenog. Note also the ***bric word galnas in Leges Inter Brettos et
Scottos, cf. galanas. Prythonic long-E became long-I in Welsh, Cornish,
Breton, and ***bric, for example the ***bric place-name Keer derived from
Prythonic *ceros. Prythonic short-I Prythonic short-I remained unchanged
in
Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric. Prythonic long I remained unchanged
in
Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric. Prythonic long I Prythonic short-O
remained unchanged in ***bric, but in Welsh, short-O became short-U before
a
nasal and before a liquid plus stop, and short-I in pretonic syllables,
for
example the Welsh word mynydd appears with short-O in the place-name
Tarnmonath Prythonic long-O became the diphthong short-OU in Welsh,
Cornish,
Breton, and ***bric, but because long-O persists in local dialect, long-O
perhaps remained unchanged in ***bric Prythonic short-U generally remained
unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, but there was a tendency for it
to
become short-O in ***bric, as in Pardovan and Troloss. Short U became
short
I in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton before a nasal plus stop, but remained
unchanged in ***bric. Prythonic long U became long-I in Welsh, Cornish,
Breton, and ***bric, but place-name evidence indicate that this change was
slow in ***bric, but the place-names Cardew and Dintsmere indicate this
sound change. Aberuthven long U as long I
A Comparison Between Welsh and ***bric Diphthongs
Welsh AE comparative to ***bric long-E Welsh AE comparative to
***bric
short A Welsh AI comparative to ***bric short A Welsh OE comparative to
***bric AI
The Welsh word maen appears as ling-E in Aberruthven
Prythonic long-U
Prythonic long-U remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton. In ***bric
Prythonic long W became long O as in the ***bric place-names such as
Polmaise and Poltragon.
DIPHTHONGS
Welsh AE into AI
Four ***bric words have been preserved in ***bric place-names (written
***bric). The Welsh equivalents of these words in Welsh are caer, blaen,
baedd, and maen (examples; Aberruthven, Bathgate, Blencarn, Blencogo,
Blencow, Blenecrayk c. 1268, Blenerhasset, Caraverick, Cardew, Careona,
Cardunneth Pike, Cardurnock, Carfrae, Carwinley, Castle Carrock,
Gragareth.
As will become apparant later ***bric spelling became simpler than Welsh,
and for this reason the Welsh diphthongs AE, AI, and OE are all respelt AI
when translating Welsh words containing these three Welsh diphthongs into
***bric. The general rule to follow is that AI is pronounced as long E
except before R, in which case AI is pronounced as short A. Long E has
been
preserved in North country speech. The nearest English equivaled is AI as
in
air; hence *blain is pronounced not of course as blairn, but as blai(r)n
as
in ai(r) with the R missing. When pronouncing the English word air you
might
notice a slight tightening of the throat, this tightening is necessary to
get the correct sound.
Welsh OE into AI
Bathgate, Bathchet c. 1160, Clesketts, Culcheth, Culgaith, Dalkieth,
Hesketh, (Heskayth c. 1298), Inchkieth, Ketton, Kieth, Lingmell, Crag,
Mallerstang, Menstrie, Mellor, Melrose, Plenmellior, and Plenploth. The
spelling AÍ for Northern long E are found in Culgaith (Culgayth c. 1232)
and
Hesketh. This spelling has been adopted in order to avoid confusion with
short E. The diacritic mark Í is added in order to avoid long E being
pronounced as a diphthong.
In most cases Welsh OE appears as AI in written ***bric (see. Heskayth,
Culgaith), the exceptions being A as in Mallerstand and long I in Kieth,
Dalkieth, and Inchkieth. This last spelling can be taken as a very late
pronunciation of AI as long I. The Mallerstang can be taken as
corroberation
of the above rule that Welsh AE is respelt as A before R upon the grounds
that Mallerstang was affected by the spelling of CAR corresponding to
Welsh
CAER.
Welsh AI into ***bric AI or A
AI The Welsh diphthong AI becomes either short A in ***bric, as in
Pennigant, or Short-E as in Penyghent. Blindcrake Blenecrayc c.1268
Camblesford Camelesford c. 1311
Carrick plus dialect Wst
Castel Hewin Castelewyne c. 1272
Crakeplace
Douglas
Eglesbreth
Ewanrigg
Glencoyn Glencaine c.1212
Hesketh
Longmel Crag
Linlithgow
Masefen
Penman****el
Pennigant
Penyghent
Redmain
Trevercraig(Trapain)
Because Penigant is in Scotland and Penygent in Northern England then the
suggestion is that Welsh AI is translated as A in Scottish ***bric and as
AI
in Northcountry ***bric, thereby casting a patriotic sot into the soup.
Welsh AU into ***bric OW
Blencogo preserved the plural cogow, meaning cuckoos, the diphthong OW
corresponding to the Welsh diphthong AU as in cogau, the Welsh for
cuckoos.
Welsh AW into ***bric OW
The Welsh diphthong AW becomes the short-diphthong OU, written as OW in
the
place-name Lanercost. The Welsh for Lanercost if Llanerch Awst, the
surviving ***bric being Lanerc Ost, corresponding to Reconstructed ***bric
Lhanarch Owst.
The Welsh diphthong EI into ***bric AI
EI becomes AI in the ***bric place-name Lanerkaythrin.
The Welsh diphthong EU into AW and OW
EU appears into AW and OW
EU appears as AW or OW in medieval spellings of the ***bric place-name
Carwinley (Carwyndelawae, Karwendelowe). The suggestion this time is that
the choice should be left to the individual.
The Welsh diphthong EW into U and OU
Welsh EW appears as long-W and the diphthong short-OU in the medieval
spellings of Niddrie (Nodref, ****ref).
IW The Welsh diphthong IW remains as IW in the place-name ***rew.
The Welsh diphthongs EO, IO, and Yw appear as EW in cognate Cornish words,
and so presumable would appear as IW in ***bric.
OE The Welsh diphthong OE becomes short-E in the place-names Culcheth,
Hesketh, Mellor, Melrose, Plenmellior, and Tulketh, but as long-I in the
place-names Cheetham and Kieth, and the diphthong EI in Culgaith.
OI, OU The Welsh diphthongs OI and OU are very rare in Welsh and no
***bric
equivalents have survived.
WA The Welsh diphthong WA remains unchanged in the medieval ***bric
place-name Wastpatrick Wath.
WY The Welsh diphthong WY appears as both WI and the diphthong short-OU in
the medieval spelling of the river-name Goyt (Got and Gwith).
UA The Welsh diphthong UA in buarth appears as short-I in the ***bric
place-names Birdoswald and Burtholm.
UO The Welsh diphthong UO appears as the triphthong short-IVO in the
place-names Devoke Water and ***divock, cf. W. duog, dark, hence *cwm
divoc
for cwm duog.
CONSONANTS
B Welsh B remains unchanged in ***bric place-names such as Blencogo. Etc.
C Welsh Remains unchanged in Reconstructed ***bric.
Ch Welsh ch appears unaltered in Eccle Fechan, and so remains unchanged.
D Initial Welsh D remains unchanged, but elsewhere Welsh D appears as DD
or
voiced-th in Culcheth, Culgaith, Penketh, Tulketh, Lothersdale,
andWethermellock. This represent a sound change in original ***bric.
Initial
Welsh D remains unchanged in Reconstructed ***bric but becomes DD
elsewhere.
DD Welsh DD remains unchanged in Roswrageth, *rhos wragydd, and so remains
unchanged in reconstructed ***bric.. TH Welsh TH or unvoiced-th remains
unchanged in Lanrekaythin, and so remains unchanged in reconstructed
***bric.
F Welsh F remains unchanged in Eccle Fechan, Carfrae, Macefen, and remains
unchanged in Reconstrcuted ***bric despite being spelt as V elsewhere.
There
was what seems to be a sound change in Late ***bric from F into FF as in
Lindifferon, and Peffer. FF Welsh FF remains unchanged within
Reconstrcuted
***bric.
G Welsh G becomes C in ***bric place-names with a few exceptions, for
example Penicuik, which in Welsh is pen y cog, has to be compared with
Blencogo. In ***bric cuckoo was coc in the singulart but cogow in the
plural, hence *pen y coc for Penicuik, and *blen y cogow for Blencogo.
GW Welsh GW remains unchanged in Din Gouary, the old name for Bamborough.
It
alsoappears as WH in Couwhencatte, and H in hestada, a North British and
Manx tax recorded in the Doomsday Book, and which corresponded to the
medieval Welsh tax called gwestfa. Welsh GW remains unchanged in
Reconstructed ***bric.
LL Welsh LL appears to have disappeared in ***bric, and appears as L in
Landican, Lanercost, Linlithgow, Liscard, etc., yet despite this LL is
spelt
LH in ***bric despite being pronounced as L.
R is always trilled in ***bric, even when R appears at the end of a word.
top
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
An English-***bric Dictionary
Some of the following Celtic words are taken from SKEAT'S ETYMOLOGICAL
DICTIONARY
A
Able; v. (to be able) galhu (W. gallu, Corn. gallos); able, powerful, adj.
galhuoc (W. galluog Corn. gallosek); ability, power m.n.
galhu (W. gallu).
About; prep. am (W. am); about, concerning, cylch (W. cylch).
Above; prep. uch (M.W. uch, W. uwch, Corn. a-ugh).
Account; m.n. cyvriv pl.-on (W. cyfrif, pl. -on); to reckon up. ar bop
cyvriv (W. ar bob cyfrif); by no means, thim ar yun
cyvriv (W. ddim ar un cyfrif).
Acid; m.n. sur, pl. surio (W. sur, plus double negative i+on, ***bric
double
negative i+o).
According to; adv. yn ol (W. yn ol)
Act; v. to play, gwarai (M.W. gwara Corn. gwary); acting, play, s****t m.n.
gwarai (Din Guarray, the name of Bamburgh
recorded by Nennius), cf. W. gwarae; to play (a musical instrument, etc.),
also W. chwarae.
Addition; m.n. whaneci pl.-o (W. chwanegiad); additional, adj. whanecol;
added, adj. whanegoc.
Adjustment; f.n. treven, pl. trevnow (W. trefn, pl. -au).
Advertisement; f.n. haithi, pl.-o (W. hoeddiad); to advertise, v. haithi
(W.
heddu); public, adj. haith (M.W. hoedd, W.
cynhoeddus).
After; prep. wethi (W. wedi, Corn. wosa); after, adv. ar ol (W. ar ol);
after him, ar ei ol.
Again; adv. yun ail amser (one other time).
Against; prep. arbyn (W. yn erbyn, Corn. erbyn); against him, yn ei arbyn.
Agreement; m.n. cyssonianth, pl.-ow (W. cysoniant, Corn. kessenyans); to
agree, v.cysoni (W. cysoni, Corn.kesseny); regular,
consistent, agreeable, pleasant, f.n. cysson (W. cyson, Corn. kesson).
Air, Atmosphere; f.n. aor, pl.-yow (W. awyr, pl. -iau, Corn. ayr, Bret.
aer).
All; prep. olh (W. oll, Corn. oll); overalls, m.n. yucholhow.
Almost; adv. agos (W. agos, Corn. ogas)
Along; adv. omlain (W. ymlaen); along, prep. ar hydd (W. ar hyd).
Among; m.n. yn mysc (W. ymysg, Corn. yn-mysk).
Amount; m.n. cyvandder (W. cyfander).
Amusement; m.n. dithan (W. diddan); to amuse, v. dithani (W. diddanu).
And; conj. a, ac (W. a, ag, Corn.& Bret. ha, hag.)
Angle; f.n. angl, pl. -o (W. ongl pl.-au).
Anger; m.n. dic (W. dig); angry adj. from (W. ffrom); to be angry, v.
fromi
(W. ffromu); to anger, make angry, v. digio (W. digio).
Animal; f.n. mil, pl. -io (W. mil, pl. -oedd, Corn. myl, pl. mylyow).
Answer; m.n. gorep,pl. gorebio (Med.W. goreb, pl. -ion, cf. Corn. gorthyp,
pl. gorthebow; to answer, v. gorebi (W. gorebu).
Ant; m.n. mor, pl. -io (dial. piss-more, piss-mire, Med.W. mor, Corn.
muryon).
Apparatus; m.n. tacel, pl. taclen (Dan. takkel, W. tacl).
Apple; m.n. aval, pl. -o (W. afal, pl. -au, Corn. aval pl. avallow).
Approval; m.n. cloth, pl. -o (W. clod, pl. ydd); to approve, v. clothi (W.
clodu).
Arch; m.n. bo, pl. bwo (W. bwa, pl. bwau)
Army; m.n. li pl. lio (W. llu, pl. lliaw, Corn. lu, pl. luyow).
Art; f.n. celv, pl. -o (W. celf, pl. -au).
As; conj. val (W. fel); prep., a, ac (W. a, ag), adv. mor (W. mor).
At; prep. at (Scan. at. W.ger); prep. at (Scan. at, W. yn).
Attack; m.n. cerch, pl. -o (W. crych, -au); to attack, v. cerchi (W.
cyrchu).
Attempt; m.n. ces pl. -io (W. cais, pl. -iau); v. to attempt, to try,
cesio
(W. caisio).
Attention;
Attraction;
Authority;
Automatic;
Awake; adj. efro (W. effro): to awaken, v. efroi (W. effroi).
B
Baby; m.n. babi, pl. babio (med. W. babi, cf. Corn. baby, Eng. baby)
Bad; adj. drwc, pl. drwgo (W. drwg, pl. drygau, cf. Corn. drok, pl.
drogow.)
Bag; m.n. sach, pl. sacho (W. sach, pl. -au, Corn. sagh, pl. seghyer).
Balence; f.n. mantol, pl. -io (W. mantol, pl. -ion, Corn. mantol, pl.
mantolyow: to balence, v. mantoli (W. mantolu, Corn. mantolly.)
C
Cowslip
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A ***bric-English Dictionary
Aber nm pl aberi, var. abar, a conflux, water meetings of a river, stream,
or brook, mouth of a river.
Ald f.n. pl. eild, a cliff, woody hill.
Averic nm pl. averigow, a cowslip
B
Bab m.n.pl babi, a baby [Babe: M.E. bab, baban, cf. Corn. baban, W. mab,
maban, O.W.maqvi, cf. Gael. mac.]
Baban adj., baby.
Bag m.n. pl bagio, a bag [M.E. bagge, Gael. balg, bolg, bag].
Banoc m.n. pl. banogio, cf. Gael. bonnach, a kind of cake.
Bar nm pl baro, a small hill, a bar or a rail, [Gael.& Ir. barra].
Barth nm pl. beirth, a poet [W. bardd, Gael. bard].
Barol nm pl barolo, a barrel [M.E. barol, cf.W. baril, Ir. bairile,
Gael.baraill, Manx. barrel].
Bascedd nf pl basceddi, a basket [W.basged, Ir. basceid].
Bloc nm pl blocco, a block or plug [M.E. blok, W. ploc, a block or plug,
cf.
Gael. ploc, also Ir. blogh, O.Ir. blog, & Ir. pluc, ploc.]
Blujjon nm pl blujjuni, a bludgeon or club. [E. bludgeon W. plocyn, cf.
Ir.
blocan, dimin. of ploc, Gael. plocan, a mallet or club.]
Bog nm pl boggi, a bog, a toilet [Ir. bog, soft, bogach, a bog, bogaim, I
shake, Gael. bogan, a quagmire, bog, soft, moist, bog, to soften or
agitate.]
Bogol nm pl bogolo, a spectre, will o' the wisp in a bog, a lepricorn.
Boggol nm pl boggoli, to stare with bulging eyes [Prov. Eng. boggle,
bogle,
a spectre. W. bwgwl, a threat; bygly, to scare; bwgwth, to scare.]
Brin nm pl brinio, a small hill, a hill [Bryn in Lancs, W. bryn]
Brisc adj brisk, quick [Scots. brisk, bruisk, quick, W.brysg, cf. Gael. to
start with surprise, leap for joy, Ir. briosg, to start, a bounce.]
Bump nm pl bumpio, a bump, a swelling caused by a bump [W. bwmp, to bump,
yn
bwmpio.]
BARROCK a spur
BATH a boar
BORDD a cowfold, dairy
BRANT a steep fell
BLA a wolf
BLEN flat of a fell top
BOC a stream
BRUN a hill
BRYN a hill
Baban a baby. e: M.E. bab, baban, cf. Corn. baban, W. mab, maban,
O.W.maqvi,
cf. Gael. mac.
Bag: a bag M.E. bagge, Gael. balg, bolg, bag.
Bannock: Gael. bonnach, a kind of cake.
Bar: W. bar, a rail, Gael.&Ir. barra..
Bard: W. bardd, Gael. bard
Barrel: M.E. barol, cf.W. baril, Ir. bairile, Gael.baraill, Manx. barrel.
Basket: W.basged, Ir. basceid.
Block: M.E. blok, W. ploc, a block or plug, cf. Gael. ploc, also Ir.
blogh,
O.Ir. blog, & Ir. pluc, ploc.
Bludgeon: W. plocyn, cf. Ir. blocan, dimin. of ploc, Gael. plocan, a
mallet
or club.
Bog: Ir. bog, soft, bogach, a bog, bogaim, I shake, Gael. bogan, a
quagmire,
bog, soft, moist, bog, to soften or agitate.
Boggle: Prov. Eng. boggle, bogle, a spectre. W. bwgwl, a threat; bygly, to
scare; bwgwth, to scare.
Bump: W. bwmp, to bump, yn bwmpio.
C
Cabin: M.E. caban, W. caban, a boothe, dim. of cab, a boothe made with
rods
put in the ground and tied together at the top, cf. Ir. and Gael. caban, a
boothe, hut, ot tent.
Cairn: Gael. gen. of carn, a pile of stones, cf. Ir. W. Bret. a pile of
stones. Gael. v. carn, to pile up.
Car: M.E. carre, a chariot, cf. Bret. karr, also W. Ir. Gael. O.F. car, a
chariot.
Cess-pool: Prov. Eng. suss, soss, a puddle, hogwash, mess, Gael. sos, an
unseely mixture of food, cf.W. sug, moisture, also soch, a drain.
Coax: from cokes, a simpleton, fool, see cog.
Cob: M.E. cob, the head of a person, W. a tuft, a spider; copa, crown of
the
head, cf. cobweb, a spider's web, also cf. M.E. cobylstone, dimin. of cob;
hence, cob, cobyl.
Cog: M.E. cog, a tooth on the wheel of a rim, cf. Ir. and Gael. cog, a
mill
cog,cf. W. cocos, cocs, cogs of a wheel.
Cog, to trick: W. cog, empty, vain, coegio, to trick, to render void.
Coil, noise, bustle: Gael. goil, noise, battle, Ir. to boil, rage.
Combe, a hollow in a hillside: W. cwm, Corn. ***, a hollow, dale. cf.Ir.
***as, a dale.
Coot: M.E. cote,coote, W. cwtiar, a coot, lit. cwt, a tail, iar, a hen.
cf.
W. v. cwtan, to shorten, dock, Corn. cut, short, Scots. cutty, short.
Cut: M.E. cutten, to cut, W. cwtan (as above), W. cwtws a lot or ****tion,
M.E. n. cut, a lot or ****tion, cf. Gael. cutaich, to shorten, cut.
Crag: W. craig, Gael. creag, a crag or rock, cf. W. careg, also Gael.
carraig, a rock or cliff, also Gael. carr, a rock.
D
Dad: W.tad, Ir. daid, Bret. tat
Dagger: M.E. dagere, v. daggen, to pterce, cf. W. dagr, Bret. dag, dager,
Ir. daigear, O.Gael, daga, a dagger,pistol
Darn: W. darnio, to break into pieces, to pierce, darn, a piece, fragment,
Corn. and Breton darn, a gragment, piece.
Dock: W. tocio, to clip, dock, tocyn, a short piece,mod. a ticket.
Drab: Ir. a spot, stain, Ir. drabog, Gael. drabag, a ****, Gael. drabach,
dirty.
Drudge: M.E. druggen, Ir.drugaire, a drudger, drudge, slave.
Druid: W. derwydd, a druid, cf. Gael. druidh, Ir. druidh, an auger.
Dun: W. dwn,dun, dusky, cf. Ir. and Gael. donn, brown.
Dunek: a hedge sparrow.
G
Goggles: M.E. gogil eyid, goggle-eyed, Gael. and Ir. gogshuileach, side
glance, having wandering eyes,goggle-eyed, Ir. gogor, light in demeanour,
Gal. gogach, nodding, fickle, Ir. gogach, wavering, reeling, Ir. and Gael.
gog, to nod, to move slightly.
Gowan: a daisy, Gael. and Ir. gogan, a flower, daisy.
Gown: M.E.gounee, W. gwn, Corn. gun, cf.Gael, gun, Ir. gunn,Manx. goon.
Gyves: M.E. gives, gyues, fetters, W. gefyn, Gael. and Ir. geimheal, a
fetter, bondage, captive, also Ir. var. geibheal, Ir. geibhim, I get,
obtain, Ir. gabh I take.
F
Flummery: W. llymry, llymruwd, sour oatmeal boiled and jellied, flummery,
W.
llymrig, crude, llymus, sharp, llymu, to sharpen, llym, sharp.
H
Hap: M.E. hap, Icel. happ, chance, hap, good luck, W. hap.
Hassock: M.E. hassok, orig. sedge, coarse grass, W. hesog, sedgy, hesg,
plural of hesgyn, a sieve, hesior, a hassock, seisg, a sedge or reed bog.
K
Knob: weakened form of knop, see knop.
Knack: W. cnep, a snap, finger snap, jester's trick, desterity, a joke,
triffle, toy, Gael. cnac, Ir. cnag, a crack, v. cnagaim, I
knock, strike.
Knag: M.E. knagge, a peg, a knot in wood, W. cnwc, a lump, Gael. cnag,
knob,
pin, peg, Ir. cnag, a knob,peg, cnaig, a knot in wood, cnagaim, I knock,
strike.
Knap: W. cnap, a knob, Gael. cnap, a knob, button, boss, stud, hillock, a
slight blow, v. cnap, to beator thump, Ir. cnap, a
knob, hillock, bunch,v. cnapaim, I stike, cf. Dan. kneppe, to snap, Swed.
knep, a trick.
Knave: M.E. knaue (knave), a boy, servant (Celtic boys being servants to
the
Teutons), Gael. cnapach, a youngster, a stout smart boy orig. adj. knobby,
limpy stout, see knop.
Knock: M.E. knocken, W. cnocio, Corn. cnoucye
Knoll: M.E. knol, W. cnol, a knoll, hillock, Gael. a hill, knoll, hillock,
Ir. cnoc, a hillock, turnip.
Noggin: Ir. noigin, Gael. noigean, a noggin, Gael. cnagan, a little knob,
a
peg, an earthen pipkin, Ir. cnogaire, a noggin. Gael. cnagaidh, bunchy,
viz.
knag.
Knop: M.E. knop, a rose bud, see. W. cnap, see knap above.
L
Lad: M.E. ladde, W. llawd, a youth, Ir. luth, nimble, active, Gael.
laidir,
strong, luth, strength.
Lag: W. llag, slack, Corn. lac, loose, remiss.
Lass: W. llodes, fem. form of llawd.
Loch: Gael. loch, a lake, W. llwch, Corn. lo, Bret. louch.
Lough: Ir. and N. Eng. see loch above.
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A ***BRIC-ENGLISH DICTIONARY
C
CAM crooked, a bend
CAMER a conflux
CAPLE, CAPPLE a horse
CAR a villa, farmhouse (cair)
CAR THEW black farmhouse (cair ddew)
CARN a burial mound
COGOW cuckoos
CRAIG a rock
CRAYK a rock (craig)
D
DINNIS a tem****ary fortification
DER water (dwr)
DRONOW a circle of standing stones
DUNNOKE Donatus (Dunot)
E
E definite article, the (y)
ER definite article, the (yr)
K
KAL hard (cal)
KARTHUR a seat or throne (carthur)
KETH a wood (caidd)
L
LES a stream
LES a court
LOS a tail
M
MAN rock or stone (main)
MAKER a wall or ancient ruine
MELOK baldness
Main, n.m. pl. mein, rock, stone
Mais, n.m. pl. meis, field
Monedd, n.m. pl. moneddi, mountain, waste land.
Mower, adj. large, big.
N
Nanth, n.f. pl. neinth. v-shaped valley, a brook
P
Pen n.m. pl. pennow, head, chief, conical hill
Pren n.m. pl. prennow, plank, log, timber
R
RUTH red
RUTH VEN red stone (ruth vain)
S
Ister a stream (yster)
T
TREV vill, village
TULL pit, hole (tul)
W
WARNET alder trees (late var. gwarneth)
WETHER blue or green, bluish green (gwether)
WERNETH alder trees (gwerneth)
WITH a wood (gwith)
WICK a coppice (gwic)
WIN white (gwin)
WINSTER (gwen ysteri)
Q
QUIC a coppice (wic)
Y
YAN one (un)
YEVER a goat
top
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A ***BRIC GRAMMAR
1.. Gender of Nouns
Nouns and adjectives in modern P-Celtic languages are not declined. All
that remains of the original Prythonic declensions is ender. There were
originally three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Nouns belonging
to the neuter gender passed into either the masculine or feminine genders
according to the similarity of neuter genders. In consequence a word may
be
feminine in Cornish and masculine in Welsh. The general rule in
Reconstructed ***liic is to follow Welsh usage.
2.. Plural of Nouns plurals are formed in three ways. i. By the addition
of plural suffixes. Two ***bric plural suffixes have survived. These are
-ow
as in Blencogo, which corresponds to Welsh -au, and ydd as in Werneth and
Warren Burn (Warnet c.1157), which corresponds to Welsh -ydd. ii. By vowel
mutation. An example of a plural formed by vowel mutation exists in the
place-name Tranent, earlier Trev er Nent, meaning the Villa of the Narrow
Valleys, the ***bric of which is *tref yr neint. iii. By the existence of
aggregate plurals from which singulars are formed by the addition of
diminutive suffixes. A good example of this is Ketton in Rutland, which
means a tree. This in ***bric is caithen, meaning a tree, from caith
meaning
a wood. N.B., Some Welsh plurals are formed by vowel mutation and the
addition of plural suffixes. A good example of this is neintydd, the
plural
of nant, which means a stream. It can be seen from the example of Trev er
Nent that the additional of plural suffixes after vowel mutations was
dispensed with in ***bric.
3.. The Definite Article There are three ***bric definite articles.
a.. The definite article y as in Blencogo (Blen e Cogou c.1256), the
***bric of which is *blain y cogow.
b.. The definite article yr as in Tranent (earlier Trev er Nent), the
***bric of which is *tref yr neint, and Terregles (earler Trev er Egles),
the ***bric of which is *tref yr egles.
c.. The definite article yn as in Liscard (Lhis en Cark c.1256), the
***bric of which is *lys yn cark, and Tallentire, the ***bric of which is
*tal yn tir.
The present grammatical rules apply.
a.. ***bric y before consonants an in ar before consonants. yn before
T,D al before L.
b.. y before consonants yr before vowels all cases an before vowels yr
before vowels and H and H
c.. yn before T, D, H
4.. The Indefinite Article No indefinite article exists in Welsh, but
Breton has three indefinite articles, UR, UN, and UL, which are governed
by
the same rule that governs the definite article. Cornish has a definite
article that is occasionally used to emphasise the noun. ***bric follows
Cornish because of the Northcountry indefinite articles yan and yin,from
***bric un.
5.. The Genitive
Adjectival genitives are formed in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric
by
placing two indefinite nouns together, thus the ***bric place-name
Blencarn
means (The) Cairn's Summit. Whole genitive sentences can be formed, such
as
the Welsh sentence: Sail ty mab brenin Lloegr, meaning, 'The foundation of
the house of the son of the king of England,' the ***bric of which is
*Sail
ty map brenin Lhaigr. ii. The definite article can be used in place of the
English 'of ' to form a genitive by being placed between two or more
nouns,
such as the Welsh sentence: Y sail y ty y mab y brenin y Lloegr, hence the
***bric place-name Blencogo from *blain y cogow.
6.. Soft Mutation
In certain cir***stances the first consonants of Celtic words can
change.
This is called mutation.
Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
C - G C, K - G K - G, C'h C - G (Penyghent)
T - D T - D T - D T- D (Landican)
P - B P -B P - B P - B (Larbet)
G -silent G - silent G - C'h G - silent (Prenlas)
Gw - W Gw - W Gw - W Gw - W (Carwin)
B - F B - V B - V B - F (Carfrae)
D- DD D - DH D - Z D - DD
M - F M - V M - V M - F (Ruthven)
7.. Sharp Mutation
B - P D - T G - C GW - CW
8.. Rule 1 Cornish and Breton words that follow if (mar, ma), and
***bric
words also, adopt sharp mutation. Welsh words following if (mar) adopt
lenition.
9.. Aspirate Mutation
C - CH C, K - H Wh K - C'h C - CH (Penhurrock)
T - TH T- TH T - Z T - TH (Carnetly)
P - PH P - F P - F P - F (Dalfibble)
10.. Sharp Mutation
Welsh Cornish ***bric
B - P B - P B - P (Plenmellior)
D - T D - T D - T
G - C G - K G - C
GW - QU GW - KW GW - QU (***quencath)
11.. Soft Mutation in ***bric
C - G GW - W
T - D D - DD
B - F P - B
G - silent M - F
In Welsh there are twenty-one grammatical rules governing soft mutation.
It is obvious from place-name evidence that ***bric deteriorate both in
vocabulary and grammar, so the general method is to accept a Welsh
lenition
if at least one example can be found in a ***bric place-name, and to
accept
a Welsh lenition in the absence of a ***bric place-name if at least in one
other example of the same lenition can be found in another P-Celtic
language. Some lenitions that appear only in Welsh can be accepted.
Rule 1
Feminine singular nouns undergo soft mutation after the definite
article.
Example Penyghent and Pennigant Rule
Rule 2
Both masculine and feminine nouns adopt soft mutation after adjectives
such as hen (old) and cul (narrow). Example Culgaith
Rule 3
Nouns adopt soft mutation after the prepositions am (at, about), ar
(upon), at (towards), dros (over), drwy (through), dan (under), i (to),
wrth
(with, by), o (of), hyd (to, till), heb (without), gan (with). Example
Yan-ar-bumpit, Shepherd's notation for sixteen.
Rule 4.
Nouns adopt lenition after the possessive pronouns thy and his in Welsh,
Cornish, Breton, and therefore in ***bric also. (Welsh dy and ei, Cornish
dha and y, Breton da and e: Welsh 'th after a vowel, Cornish 'th after a
vowel, Breton 'az after a vowel.)
Rule 5
Nouns adopt lenition after two in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric.
Example Dotheck, Shepherd's notation for nineteen.
Rule 6
In Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in ***bric also, two adopts lenition
after the definite article.
Rule 7
In Welsh and Breton, and therefore in ***bric also, feminine nouns adopt
lenition after the numeral one. In Cornish masculine nouns adopt lenition
after one and the indefinite article.
Rule 8
Nouns in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in ***bric also,
adopt
lenition after the adjective what.
Rule 9
Two nouns or an adjective and a noun can be joined together in ***bric
to
form a single word. Example Ogilvie (*ochilfa or highplace), Mellor
(*mailvre or baldhill).
Rule 10
Nouns and verbs adopt lenition after most prefixes in Welsh, Cornish,
Breton, and therefore in ***bric also. Example Larbet, earlier lethberth
(*leddberth semi-bush).
Rule 11
Adjectives in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in ***bric also,
adopt lenition after feminine singular nouns. Example Ecclefechan (*ecles
fechan, littlechurch), Drumburgh, earlier Dromboc (*drum bach, small
ridge)
Rule 12
In medieval Welsh verbs after the pronoun e meaning it adopt lenition.
This same rule applies in ***bric despite the fact that this rule does not
occur in any other P-Celtic language. This rule has been adopted from
Welsh
for grammatical reasons. Rule 13
Welsh and Cornish verbs, therefore also verbs ***bric, adopt lenition
after the interrogative particle A
Rule 14
Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore ***bric verbs, adopt lenition
after
the relative pronouns a and na.
Rule 15
Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in ***bric also, adopt lenition
after the conjunction when.
Rule 16
Verbs in Cornish and Breton adopt lenition after the negative particle,
but in Welsh all verbs adopt lenition except verbs that begin with C, P,
T.
***bric follows Welsh usage on the presumption that ***bric is closer to
Welsh that to Cornish and Breton.
Rule 17
Welsh verbs adopt lenition after the infinite particle yn. It is
presumed
that because of the ease with which the ***bric poems of Taliesin and
Aneirin were translated into Welsh that the same rule applies in ***bric.
12.. ***bric Aspirate Mutation
C - C'h P - F T - TH
Rule 1
Welsh and Cornish nouns and therefore ***bric nouns also, adopt aspirate
mutation after the comparative particle NA, which is used with adjectives
of
comparison. Rule 4 Welsh and Cornish words and therefore ***bric words
also,
following three adopt aspirate mutation. Welsh words following six, adopt
aspirate mutation but there is no need to adopt this usage in ***bric.
Rule 2
In Cornish and Breton words following the first singular possessive
pronouns adopt aspirate mutation, but in Welsh they adopt nasal mutation.
No
example of nasal mutation survives in ***bric, but examples of aspirate
foundation exist in ***bric place-names, therefore Reconstructed ***bric
follows Cornish and Breton usage of aspirate mutation .
Rule 3
In Welsh and Cornish words following the feminine third singular
possessive (ei, 'i, 'w in Welsh and hy in Cornish) adopt the aspirate
mutation. The same pplied to ***bric.
Rule 4
Welsh and Cornish nouns, and therefore ***bric nouns also, adopted
aspirate mutation. The same would have applied to ***bric.
Rule 5
In Welsh and Cornish words following three, and in Welsh words following
six, adopt aspirate mutation. The same would have applied to ***bric.
Rule 6
In Welsh words following as (a) and also and (ac) adopt aspirate
mutation.
The same might have applied to ***bric. Rule 7
Welsh words following certain prefixes such as gor- and tra- adopt
aspirate mutation. The same might have applied to ***bric.
Rule 8
Welsh words beginning with the consonants C,P, and T adopt aspirate
mutation after the negative particles na and ni. The same would have
applied
to ***bric.
13.. ***bric Sharp Mutation
B - P (Plenmellior) D - T G - C GW - QU
Welsh words that follow the preposition if (mar) adopt soft mutation,
but
in Cornish and Breton words that follow if (ma) adopt sharp mutation. An
example of sharp mutation in a ***bric place-name exists and it must be
presumed that words that followed if in ***bric also adopted sharp
mutation.
The place name Plenmellior may have originally been part of a descriptive
sentence containing the word if (mar).
n.. Personal Pronouns
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I fi, i my, y me mi, i
thou ti, sy te ti ti
he, him ef ef en ef
she hy, y hi hi hi
we, us ni ny ni ni
you, ye chwi why ch'wi chwi
they, them hwy, nhwy y int hwi
o.. Reflexive Pronouns
Welsh (and therefore ***bric) possesses special reflective, conjunctive,
and emphatic pronouns.
English Welsh ***bric
I myself myfy mivi
thou thyself tydy tidi
he himself efe eve
she herself hyhi hihi
it itself fo vo
we ourselves nyny nini
you yourselves chychwi chichwi
they themselves hwyntwi hwintwi
p.. Conjunctive Pronouns
English Welsh ***bric
I also minnau minnow
thou also tithau tithow
he also yntau yntow
she also hithau hithow
we also nithau nithow
you also chwithau chwithow
they also hwythau hwythow
q.. Emphatic Pronouns English Welsh ***bric
I myself also my finnau my vinnow
thou thyself also ty dithau ty dithow
he himself also fe hwyntwy ve hwinwy, var. ve hontwy
it itsself also efo ydd evo eth
she herself also hyhithau hy-hithow
we ourselves also nyninnau nyninnow
you yourselves also chychwithau chy-chwithow
they themselves also hwythau hwi-thow, var. ho-thow
r.. Possessive Pronouns
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
my fy, 'm ow(m) ma my, 'm
thy dy, 'th dha, 'th da, 'az dy, 'th
his ei, 'i, 'w e e ai
her, hers ei, 'i, 'w y e ai
ours agan ma ain agan
yours agas ho aich agas
theirs eu, 'u, 'w aga e ai, 'w
As in Welsh the ***bric possessive pronouns become 'm, 'th, 'i, 'n, 'ch,
and 'u after a (and), and o (from), and ai become 'w after i (to). My and
dy
are followed by soft mutation in ***bric
s.. . Pronoun Objects
When the pronoun is the object of the verb particles are employed.
hi a-walth ef she sees him
ef e-gwalth hi him, sees she
ef a-walth hi he sees her
hi e-gwalth ef her, sees he
t.. Demonstrative Pronouns
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
this (m) hwn hemma hemman hon
this (f) hon hemma homan hon
these hyn - - hyn
that (m) hwnnw henna hennezh honno
that (f) honno henna hennezh honno
those hynny - - hynny
u.. Demonstrative Adjectives
The definite article precedes the noun. In Cornish and Breton
demonstrative adverb follows the noun.
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
this man y dyn hwn an den-ma al den-man yn dyn hon
this woman yr wraig hon an wrek-ma an wreg-man yr wraic hon
these people y dynion hyn an tus-ma an tud-man yn tudd hyn
that man y dyn hwnnw an den-na al den-se yn dyn (hon)no
that woman yr wraig honno an wrek-na an wreg-se yr wraic (hon)no
those people y dynion hynny an tus-na an tud-se yn tudd
(hyn)ny
v.. Demonstrative Adjectives without a Qualifying Noun
Demonstrative adjectives without a qualifying noun are made in the same
way by using an indefinite article.
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
these (m) y rhai hwn an re-ma y ra hon
these (f) y rhai yma an re-ma y ra yma
those (m) y rhai hyna an re-na y ra 'na
those (f) y rhai yna an re-na y ra 'na
N.B. In Cornish and ***bric the levelling of the diphthong AI to E in
the
case of Cornish and A in the case of ***bric occasions the disappearance
of
the preceding consonant. A levelling of y rhai hwn in Welsh to y ra-ma in
***bric follows the same linguistic rule that is responsible for the
Cornish
y re-ma.
w.. The Demonstrative Adverb
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
here yma omma eman yma
there yna ena eno (azo) yna
The demonstrative adverb can also serve to answer to the English
phrases,
"here is a.here are" and "there is a.there are." If the definite article
is
used ***bric, like Medieval Welsh and Cornish, uses the vocative, "Lo the
man" as in Medieval Welsh, "Wel y dyn," and in Cornish "Ot an den."
Because
of the mutation of short E to short A in ***bric the ***bric equivalent
is,
"Wal y dyn."
x.. The Adverbial Particle
In Welsh, Cornish, and ***bric the adverbial particle yn is placed
before
adjectives in order to turn them into adverbs, thus in Welsh drwg (bad)
and
da (good) become yn ddrwg and yn dda, Cornish drok and da become yn-trok
and
yn-ta, and so in ***bric drwc and da become yn ddrwc and yn dda.
y.. Relative Pronouns
Welsh, Cornish, and ***bric translations into Welsh possess relative
pronouns that correspond to the English relative "that" and "which". In
positive sentences this relative pronoun is A before vowels and
consonants.
In negative sentences is NA before consonants but NAD in Welsh and NANS in
Cornish before vowels. The corresponding ***bric is NADD. When a
preposition
or the genitive "whose" is used the relative pronoun Y is substituted for
A
in Welsh and the preposition is placed at the end of the sentence, thus on
Welsh, "Dyma'r llyfr y darllenais y stori ynddo" (Here is the book which I
read the story in it). Welsh "dyma" is a variant of "yma," which means
here
or here is, and which corresponds to the Breton "eman". this rule appears
in
Taliesin, for example;"Trist yd gwyn pob colledig" or ""Sadly does every
condemned one complain"; therefore it appears in ***bric, hence, "Yma'r
lyfr
y darlenais y saga ynddo." English Welsh ***bric
the one yr hwn er hon
that which y neb e nep
such ones y rhai e rai
either y naill e nail
who pwy po, pui
what pa pa
which one pa un pa yan, pa yon
which ones pa rhai p rai
how many pa sol pa sol
where pa le pa le
why paham, pam pam
how are you pa sut sydd pa sit seth
In Welsh the relative pronoun pwy is followed by a special form of the
verb to be, which is sydd, or sy for short. It is not necessary to use the
phrase "pwy sydd" since "sydd" alone implies the interrogative pronoun
"pwy".
Note that in Welsh relative pronouns occasion the lenition of G, B, D and
M,
and the aspirate mutation of C, P. T. No example of aspirate lenition has
been discovered in ***bric place-names with the result that only the
lenition of G, B, and D occurs after relative pronouns.
z.. Inflected Prepositional Pronouns
In Welsh the following prepositions are inflected by adopting the
personal
pronoun, am (about), ar (upon), at ( towards), er (for), heb (without),
hyd
(until), i (to), idd (into), han (from), can (with), o (from), odd (from),
tan (under), tros (over), trwy (through), oddiar (from upon), odditan
(from
beneath), rhag (before), rhwng (among), wrth (by), and yn (in). ***bric
follows Old Welsh, Cornish, and Breton usage. The Old Welsh inflection
found
in the third person plural appears in Taliesin, "Deuddeg meib Israel a
thair
mam iddu onaddu y doeth rhad a geisidydd mad." (The twelve sons of Israel
and three mothers to thee from them there came a blessing." English Welsh
Old Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
in me ynddof ynof ynnof ennon ynov
in thee ynddot ynot ynnes ennout ynoth
in him ynddo yno ynno ennan yno
in her ynddi yni ynny enni yni
in us ynddem ynem ynnon ennomp ynem
in you ynddoch ynoch ynnough enno'ch ynoch
in them ynddynt ynu ynna enno ynu
table border=1> EnglishWelshOld WelshCornishBreton***brid to
meimiimidhem
(mo)dinimi to thee to him to her tu us to you to them to me imi imi dhem
(mo) din imi to thee iti iti dhes (so) dit iti to him iddo iddo dhodhno
dezhan iddo to her iddi iddi dhedhy dezhi iddi to us ini ini dhen deomp
ini
to you ichwi ichwi dheugh deoc'h ichwi to them iddynt iddynt dhedha dezho
iddynt
English Welsh Old Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
upon me arnaf arnaf warnaf warnon arnaf upon thee arnat arnat warned
warnout arnath upon him arno arno warnodhe warnan arno upon her arni arni
warnedhy warni arni upon us arnom arnom warnan warnomp arnom upon you
arnoch
arnoch warnough warnoc'h arnoch upon them arnynt arnu warnedha warno arnu
English Welsh Old Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
with me gennyf gennyf genen ganin gennyv
with thee gennyt gennyt genes ganit gennyth
with him ganddo ganddo ganso gantan gantho
with her ganddi ganddi gansy ganti ganthi
with us gennym gennym genen ganeomp gennym
with you gennych gennych genough ganeoc'h gennych
with them ganddynt ganddu gansa ganto ganthu
Am, such as in amdanaf for about me, adopts the preposition tan when
inflected. Some prepositions, such as uch or above are not inflected at
all.
English Welsh
above me uchi i
above thee uchi ti
above him uchi ef
above her uchi hi
above us uchi ni
above you uchi chwi
above them uchi hwy
aa.. The Syntax of Adjectives
In Prythonic adjectives preceded the noun, as in some early ***bric
place-names, but adjectives later began to follow the noun in all P-Celtic
languages. In Welsh there are a few exceptions, such as hen (old) and
uchel
(high). With regard to uchel, this is confirmed in ***bric by the ***bric
place-name Ochilvie.
The Syntax of Pronouns
Pronouns precede the noun if no other word intervenes, and if they are
accompanied by an adjective or article. A pronoun must agree with the noun
for which it stands in both gender and number, thus in Welsh, "Ef dyn
cryf"
(He [is] a strong man) and, "Hi y fenyw" (She [is] a strong female).
Modern
Welsh employs verbal auxiliaries such as, "Y mae ef dyn yn-gryf," etc.
***bric follows medieval Welsh usage.
ab.. The Equative
A simple statement such as, "The apple is red" appears in Cornish,
Breton,
and Medieval Welsh as follows. Breton, "Ruz eo al aval." Cornish. "Yr afal
yn rhudd." Medieval Welsh, "Yr afal yw rhudd." To make an equative
statement
such as "The apple is as red as fire," Modern Welsh employs certain
adverbs
and adds a suffix to the adjective; hence, "Y mae'r afal cyn goched a
than,"
but the Medieval Welsh is, "Yr afal yw yn rhudded a than." ***bric follows
Medieval Welsh usage. In order to make a simple statement such as, "The
apple is as red," Welsh employs a different adverb, "Yr afal yw can
goched."
***bric, "Yr afal yw can rhudded."
ac.. The Comparative
A comparative statement such as, 'The apple is redder than the fire'
appears in modern Welsh as, 'Y mae'r afal yn gochad ne than.' In Medieval
Welsh the same statement would have been, 'Yr afal yw gochach na than.'
The
Breton equivalent of this statement is, 'An aval eo ruzoc'h na than.'
Welsh
'y mae', which means 'there is' has a strange echo in the Bretan
alternative, 'An aval emañ ruzoc'h na than'. The ***bric for this sentence
is,'Yr afal yw ruthach na than.'
ad.. The Superlative
A superlative statement such as, 'This apple is the reddest' appears in
Modern Welsh as, 'Y mae'r afal hwn yn gochaf.' In Breton it would appear
as,
'An hini aval eo ar ruzan' and in Cornish as, 'An afal-ma yu an rutha.'
The
***bric follows Medieval Welsh usage, 'Yr afal-ma yw y ruthav.'
ae.. Adjectives of Comparison and Superlativity
Degrees of comparison and superlativity can also be expressed by
adjectives such as:
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
more mwy moy mwi
most mwyaf moyha moav
less llai le lai
least lleiaf lyha leyav
better gwell gwell gwall
best gorau gorrow gorrow
worse gwaeth gweth gwaith
worst gwaethaf gwethav gwaithav
farther pellach pella pellach
farthest pellaf an pella pellav
af.. Declension of Adjectives
In Medieval Welsh adjectives possessing certain vowels agreed with the
noun in gender and in same cases number as well thus small was 'bychan'
after masculine singulars, bechan after feminine singulars, and bychan
after
plurals. Most Welsh adjectives adopt the plural suffix -ion when they
qualify the noun. English Welsh ***bric
two (m) dau dow
two (f) dwy dwi
crooked (sing.) cam cam
crooked (pl.) ceimion cemi
bent (sing.) crwm crom
bnt (pl.) crymion cremi
ag.. Adjectival Suffixes
Three ***bric adjectival suffixes have survived.
a.. -ic as in Carrick and Caraverick
b.. -oc as in Cardurnock and Carrock Fell
c.. -ol as in Rossall and Preesal.
w The above three suffixes may be compared with their corresponding
English suffixes. flower blodeuyn bloddowin
flowerish blodeuig bloddowic
flowery blodeuog bloddowoc
flowering blodeuol bloddowol
flowered blodeuedig bloddoweddic
In addition the suffix -etico from Elmetico was discovered at Penmachno
in
Gwynedd on the tombestone of a 6th. century Leeds man, the ***bric
equivalent would be -eddic.
ah.. Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are formed by the addition of abstract suffixes. The
suffix
in Levene, which is the medieval spelling of the river-name Leven that is
found in Che****re, Lanca****re, and York****re, is the sole surviving
***bric
example. The final -e in Levene corresponds to the Welsh abstract suffix
-i.
Welsh words, such as llyfniad, which means smoothness and which
corresponds
to the medieval ***bric river-name Levene, is possesses two abstract
suffixes, these are -i and -ad, which together form -iad. Cornish prefers
the two abstract suffixes -y and -ans, which together as -yans correspond
to
Welsh -iant. The ***bric word barny, meaning a dispute, which has survived
in English corresponds to the Welsh word barniad, which means a judgement.
Quite clearly the abstract suffix -i on its own sufficed in medieval
***bric.
ai.. Adjectival Nouns
If two nouns are joined together the first noun becomes an adjective and
the second noun undergoes soft mutation.
Example
Penrith, "chief ford".
Sometimes nouns are abbreviated when joined together, thus the Welsh
word
buwch (cow) when added to garth (fold) becomes buarth (cowfold)
Example
Burtholm from buvwch (cow) and garth (fold) became burth thus replacing
bu(vwch-ga)rth as in the place-names Burtholm (from burth-holmr or cowfold
island or hillside) and Birdoswald (burth Oswald). Note in these two
***bric
place-names the disappearance of A before RTH as per rule thus making
burth
corresponding to Welsh buarth.
aj.. Numerals
***bric numerals from one to twenty have been preserved in various
versions of Shepherd's notation. These numerals were perhaps used more by
knitters. Celtic numeration was made in scores or twenties, thus
sixty-four
would be three score and four rather than the Saxon sixty-four. The
notation
below is Lincoln****re Shepherd's Notation. English Notation Welsh Cornish
Breton ***bric
one yan/yin un onen unan iun (yin)
two tan dau, dwy deu, dwy daon do
three tethera tri, tair tyr tri tri
four pethera pedwar, pedeir peswar, peder pever peddor
five pimp pump pymp pemp pump (pimp)
six sethera chwech whegh c'hwec'h chwech
seven lethera saith seyth seizh saith
eight hovera wyth eth eizh with
nine covera naw naw nav now
ten dik deg dek dek dic
eleven yan-ar-dik un-ar-deg unnek unnek iun-ar-dic (yin-ar-dik)
twelve tan-ar-dik deuddeg deudhek daouzek do-ar-ddic
thirteen tethera-ar-dik tri-ar-ddeg tredhek trizek tri-ar-dic
fourteen pethera-ar-dik pedwar-ar-ddeg peswardhek pevarzek
peddwar-ar-ddic
fifteen bumpit pymtheg pymthek penzek pemthic
sixteen yan-ar-bumpit un-ar-bymtheg whetek c'hwezek iun-ar-bemthic
seventeen tan-ar-bumpit dau-ar-bymtheg seythek seitek
dow-ar-bemthic
eighteen tethera-ar-bumpit deunaw etek eitek tri-ar-bemthic
nineteen pethera-ar-bumpit pedwar-ar-bymtheg nawn jek naontek
peddwar-ar-bemthic
twenty figgit ugain ugans ugent ugainth
The score or unit of twenty is used in ***bric as follows. English Welsh
Cornish ***bric
twenty-one (one score and one) ugain-arn-un ugans-warn-onen
ugain-arn-iun
thirty (one score and ten) deg-ar-hugain dek-warn-ugans dec-arn
ugain
fourty (two score) deugain deugans dawgain
fifty (five score and ten) deg-ar-deugain dek-ha-deugain
dec-ar-pump
sixty trigain trygans trigain
seventy (three score and ten) trigain-ar-deg trigans-ha-dek
trigain-a-dec
eighty (four score) pedwar ugain peswar ugans peddwar ugain
ninety (four score and ten) pedwar ugain a deg peswar ugans ha dek
peddwar ugain a dec
hundred cant cans canth
thousand mil myl mil
million (a thousand thousand) myliwn mylvyl million
milliard (a thousand million) mylfyliwn mylvylvyl miliard
billion (a million million) myliwnfyliwn mylvylvylvyl billion
ak.. Ordinal Numbers
It will be seen that Shapherd's Notation does not consist entirely of
numerals but alsopartly of ordinals.
English Notation Welsh Cornish ***bric
first yan cyntaf kenta centav
second tan ail yl ail
third tethera trydydd, trydedd tressa treddeth
fourth pethera pederydd, pederedd peswera peddereth
fifth pimp pumped pympes pumpedd (pimpeth)
sixth sethera chwechwed whetegvas chwechwedd
seven sethera seithfed seythves sethfedd
eighth lethera wythfed ethves oithfedd
ninth hovera nawfed nawves nofedd
tenth covera degfed degves degvedd
eleventh yan-ar-dik unfed-ar-deg unnegves unvedd-ar-dec
twelfth tan-ar-dik deudegved deudhegves dowddegveth
thirteenth tethera-ar-dik trydyd-ar-ddeg tredhegves
treddedd-ar-thec
fourteenth pethera-ar-dik pedwerydd-ar-ddeg peswardhegves
peddwereth-ar-thec
fifteenth bumpit pymthegfed pymthegves pemthecveth
sixteenth yan-ar-bumpit unfed-ar-bymtheg whetegves
iun-ar-pemthecveth
seventeenth tan-ar-bumpit ail-ar-bymtheg seytegves
dow-ar-pemthecveth
eighteenth tethera-ar-bumpit deunawfed etegves tredeth-ar-bemthec
ninteenth pethera-ar-bumpit pedwerydd-ar-bymtheg nawnjegves
peddereth-ar-bemthec
twetieth figgit ugeinfed ugansves ugainvedd(iganveth)
thirtieth - degfed-ar-hugain degveth-ar-ugans decvedd-arn-ugain
Notes
a.. Cyntaf and centavis always placed after the noun.
b.. Ail is followed by soft mutation.
c.. An ordinal before a feminine noun causes soft mutation.
d.. Adverbs of number are formed by the addition of gwaith.
e.. Twofold, threefold, etc., are formed by adding the
suffix -pleg, -plec, thus twofold in Welsh is daupleg and in ***bric is
dowplec.
al.. The Syntax of the ***bric Verb
The ***bric verb has more in common with the Breton, Cornish, and
Medieval
Welsh verb than with the modern Welsh verb, the modern speaker of which
finds the verb of the other three P-Celtic languages somewhat antiquated.
There was no fixed order in the Medieval Welsh verb nor is there any fixed
orden in the ***bric verb, but the verb in both Medieval Welsh and ***bric
is affected according to where it is placed in the sentence.
a.. If the subject is placed before the verb and the object after the
verb, as in a typical modern English sentence, the definite article
precedes
the verb as an adverbial particle.
example
Medievan Welsh. "Gwraig y can y gant." ***bric "Iun gwraic y can y
gant."(pron. Yin goorak/goorek e can e gan) English "A woman sings/is
singing the song."
b.. If the subject is not placed before the verb, and if the object is
placed before the verb, the verb adopts the adverbial particle A, which
occasions lenition.
example
Medieval Welsh "Y gant a-gan gwraig." ***bric " gant a-gan iun
gwraic."
i.e. "The song is sung by a woman."
c.. If the verb is placed at the beginning of the sentence it is
conjugated without the pronoun.
example
Medieval Welsh "Can gwraig y gant." Or "Can y gant wraig.". ***bric
"Can
gwraic y gant." Or "Can y gant wraic." It will be noted that English like
Welsh became verbose by the addition of auxillaries, for example the
Shakespearian line, "Something wicked this way comes" is in Modern English
"Something that is wicked is coming this way.".
am.. The Conjugation of the Verb in the Present and Future Tense
English Welsh Corninsh Breton ***bric
I sing/will sing canaf y-ganaf e kanen canav
thou singest/will singest cani y-ganyth e kanez cani
he sings/willsing can y-gan e kan can
we sing/will sing canwn y-ganyn e kanomp canwn
you sing/will sing canwch y-ganough e kanoc'h canwch
they sing/will sing canant y-ganans e kananz cananth
It should be noted that the present tense also serves as the future
tense,
thus " I go" and " Tomorrow I go". In addition when the verb is
accompanied
by the personal pronoun the verbal particle A intervenes between the
substantive and the verb occasioning lenition. English Welsh Cornish
Breton
***bric
I sing/will sing mi a gan my a-gan me a gan mi a gan
thou singest/will singest ti a gan ty a-gan te a gan ti a gan
he sings/will sing> ef a gan ef a-gan ev a gan ev a gan
we sing/will sing ni a gan ny a-gan ni a gan ni a gan
you sing/will sing chwi a gan why a-gan c'hwi a gan chwi a gan
they sing/will sing hwy a gan y a-gan int a gan hwi a gan
an.. The Past Continuous
This tense is also called the imperfect tense, and it expresses habitual
action of the past such as"I am..." and "I used to be...".
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I used to sing canwn y-ganen e kanen canon
thou used to sing canit y-ganes e kenes canith
he used to sing canai y-gana e kane canai (pron. cana/e)
we used to sing canem y-ganen e kanemp canem
you used to sing canech y-ganeugh kanec'h canech
they used to sing canent y-ganens e kanent canenth
ao.. The Preterite Tense
This tense expresses action completed in the past in the past, in
English
it is represented by the perfect or past definite, or by the past
continuous, such as "I have...". In South Wales canas exists as an
alternative to canodd. English Welsh Cornish ***bric
I sang canais y-ganys canais (pron. canas/canes)
thou sang canaist y-gansys canaist (pron. canast/canest)
he sang canodd y-ganas canoth
we sang canasam y-gansyn canasam
you sang canasoch y-gansough canasoch
they sang canasant y-gansons canasanth
ap.. The Pluperfect Tense
This tense expresses action completed in the remote past such as, "I
had..." English Welsh Cornish ***bric
I used to sing canaswn y-gansen canason
thou used to sing canasit y-ganses canasith
he used to sing canasai y-gansa canasai (pron. canasa/canase)
we used to sing canasem y-gansen canasem
you used to sing canasech y-ganseugh canasech
they used to sing canasent y-gansens canasenth
aq.. The Past Particles of Verbs
ar.. The Subjunctive Tense
The subjunctive has not been retained in Modern Welsh, although it
exists
in Cornish and Medieval Welsh. The subjunctive is used as follows:
1.. to express a wish
2.. to express uncertainty in the future after adverbs that refer to
time such as pan (when), tra (whilst), and nes (untill).
3.. After vel y (so that) when denoting purpose, such as "If I
came...(but I will not).
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
I may sing canwyf y-ganyf canov
thou mayest sing canych y-gany canych
he/she may sing cano y-gano cano
we may sing canom y-ganyn canom
you may sing canoch y-ganough canoch
they may sing canont y-ganons canonth
as.. The Imperative
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
let me sing canwyf y-gan canov
singest thee cana y-gana cana
let him/her sing caned y-ganes canedd
let us sing canwm y-ganen canom
sing ye canwch y-ganeugh canoch
let them sing canent y-ganens canenth
When it comes to irregular verbs they are best inflected in this tense
by
using the verb 'to be' in the imperative tense as a verbal auxillary.
at.. The Passive Tense
Verbs in the passive tense are not declined, instead passive endings are
added to the verbal root.
Welsh ***bric Cornish
the passive future/present
-ir -ir -yr
the passive imperfect
-id -idd -ys
the passive preterite
-wyd -widd -
the passive pluperfect
-asid -asidd -
the passive imperative
-awr (medieval) -or -
a..
For irregular verbs it is best to employ passive tenses of the verb to
be as verbal auxilliaries, e.b. "dydder un fy canu" (let me be
sung/played).
b.. The Welsh (medieval) phrase "e welir" (it can be seen) also
corresponds to English "you see", "one sees", "they see", and "people
see".
c.. Passive tenses can also be used in conjunction with the prefix e-,
which originally meant it, but with the demise of the neuter gender made
this pronoun redundent in most cases.
"I am seen" in Welsh (medieval) is "E'm welir."
au.. The Present Tense of the Verb To Be
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
am wyf of on of
art wyt os out oth
is yw yu eo yw
are ym on omp om
are ych ough o'ch oc'h
are ynt yns int inth
av.. The Present Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
This tense implies a contination of existence, the blueness of the sea
implies only a tem****ary condition because the sea can change colour,
therefore to express that the sea is blue requires only the present tense
of
the verb to be, but wetness is a permanent quality of the sea therefore in
a
sentence that expresses that the sea is wet it is possible to use either
the
present tense or the present habitual tense of the verb to be. In a
sentence
that states, for example, that the sea is water the present habitual tense
should be used rather than the present tense of the verb to be. Not only
is
the wateriness of the sea a permanent condition but also in the first
instance the verb to be was being used in a genitive sense thus implying
that the sea possesses blueness and wetness, but the sea does not possess
water for it is water.
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I am ydwyf esov yddov
thou art ydwyt esos yddoth
he is ydyw es,os,usy a zo yddyo
we are ydym eson yddom
you are ydych esough yddoch
they are ydynt esons,usons yddonth
The Breton verb to be (a zo) in the third person of the present tense
seems to be a just a relic of the Breton present habitual tense of the
verb
to be.
aw.. The Verb To Be With Reference to Time and Place
The P-Celtic languages developed a special form of the verb to be with
reference to time and place by adding verbal inflections to the noun man
meaning place. This form of the verb to be has been preseved in its
entirity
in Breton. In Welsh and Cornish, and therefore ***bric also, this form of
the verb is restricted to the third person and answers to the English
there
is... and there are..., and here is... and here are, as well as to the
English be here as in "dragons be here".
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
there is y mai ema ymai (pron. yma)
there are y maint emans ymainth (pron. ymanth var. ymenth)
English Breton
there is me emaon
there is thee emaout
there is him, there is him emañ
there is us emaomp
there is you (ye) emaoc'h
there are/is them emaint
one is emeur
ax.. The Verb To Be After the Interrogative Who
A special form of the verb to be is employed in Welsh after the
interrogative "who?"
English Welsh ***bric
who is/are (pwy) sydd? (po) syth?
ay.. The Verb To Be Used as an Auxiliary in the Present Continuous tense
In the P-Celtic languages there were two forms of the verb to be, which
in
itself served only to imply a tem****ary existence. Permanent existence was
indicated by adding verbal inflections to the noun ma, which means place.
Breton subtituted the verbal inflection ofma for the verb to be itself,
whereas Welsh and Cornish only substituted this verbal inflection of ma in
the third persons signular and plural. It is a peculiarity of the P-Celtic
languages that the definite article, either as y, yr, or yd. It will be
seen
by consulting the ***bric grammatical rules concerning the definite
article
as found in place-names that ***bric in this matter is identicle to Welsh
and Cornish usage.
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I am going to yr wyf i yn mynd yth-(es) of-vy ow-mos emaon o mont
yr
ov vy yn mondd
thou art going to yr wyt ti yn mynd yma-er ow-mos os-sy ow-mos
emaout o mont yr o(th) ti yn mondd
he is going to y mae ef yn mynd yth-(es) yma-of ow-mos e man o
mont
ymai (pron. ema) ev yn mondd
we are going to yr ydym ni yn mynd yth-(es) on-ny ow-mos emaomp o
monf yr om ni yn mondd
you are going to yr ydych chwi yn mynd yth-(es) ough-why ow-mos
emaoc'h o mont yr och chi yn mondd
they are going to y maent hwy yn mynd yth-(es) ymons-y ow-mos
emaint
o mont y maint (pron. mant/ment) hwy yn mondd
az.. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
this tense answers to English "I was.., I would be.., I used to be, etc.
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I was oeddwm en, esen oan aithon
thou wert oeddit es, eses oas aithi(th)
he was oedd e, esa oa aith
we were oeddem en, esen oamp aithem
you were oeddech eugh, eseugh oac'h aithech
they were oeddent ens, essens oant aithen(th)
ba.. The Verb To Be as a Verbal Auxiliary in the Imperfect Tense
English Welsh ***bric
I was singing yr oeddwm i yn canu yr aithom (m)i yn canu
thou wert singing yr oeddit ti yn canu yr aithi(th) ti yn canu
he was singing yr oedd ef yn canu yr aith ev yn canu
we were singin yr oeddem ni yn canu yr aithem ni yn canu
you were singing yr oeddech chwi yn canu yr aithech chwi yn canu
they were singing yr oeddent hwy yn canu yr aithen(th) hwy yn canu
bb.. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Be
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
I used to be bum y-bur bum
thou used to be buost y-bus byvost
he used to be bu y-bue bu
we used to be buom y-buen byvom
you used to be buoch y-bugh byvogh
they uses to be buont y-bons byvonth
he lived bu byw - bu byo
he died bu marw - bu maro
They used to be
bc.. The Past Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I was byddwn y-bedhen e vezen bythen
thou wert byddit y-bedhes e vezes bythith
he was byddai y-bedha e veze betha
we were byddem y-bedhen e vezemp bythech
you were byddech y-bedheugh e vezed bythech
they were byddent y-bedhens e bezent bythenth
bd.. The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
I had been buaswn byen buvason
thou hadst been buasit byes buvasith
he had been buasid bya buvasidd
we had been buasem byen buvasem
you had been buasech byeugh buvasech
they had been buasent byens buvasenth
be.. The Future Tense of the Verb To Be
This tense is very usefull for making references to future events, thus
byddaf i'n canu for I will (be) sing(ing).
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I will be byddaf bydhaf e vezan bythav
thou wilt be byddit bythyth e vezez bythith
he will be bydd byth e vez byth
we will be byddwn bydhen e vezomp bython
you will be byddwch bydheugh e vezit bythoch
they will be byddant bydhons e vezont bythanth
bf.. The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Be
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I may be bwyf byf e vin buiv/bov
thou mayest be bych by e vi vi
he may be bo bo e vo bo
we may be bom ben e vimp bom
you may be boch beugh e voc'h boch
they may be bont bons e vint bonth
bg.. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Be
English Welsh ***bric
I may have been, I were bawn bôn
thou mayest have been, thou wert bait bait (pron. bet or bat
he mayest have been, he were bai bai (pron. ba)
we mayest have been, we were baem bam/bem
you mayest have been, you were baech bach/bech
they mayests have been, they were baent banth/benth
bh.. Other Pluperfect Tenses
English Welsh ***bric
I had sung yr oeddwn i wedi canu yr aithon mi weddi canu
thou hadst sung yr oeddit ti wedi canu yr aithith ti weddi canu
he had sung yr oedd ef wedi canu yr aith ev weddi canu
we had sung yr oeddem ni wedi canu yr aithem ni weddi canu
you had sung yr oeddech chwi wedi canu yr aithech chwi weddi canu
they had sung yr oeddent hwy wedi canu yr aithenth hwi weddi canu
bi.. The Conditional Tense of the Verb To Be
English Welsh ***bric
I would be baswn i bason mi
thou wouldst be baset ti baseth 'i
he would be base ef bas' ev
we would be basen ni basen ni
you would be basech chwi basech chwi
they would be basen hwy basen hwi
bj.. The Interrogative Article
In order to ask a question Welsh and Cornish make use of the
interrogative
particle A. This interrogative article occasions lenition.
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
do I sing? a ganaf i a-ganaf-vy a gana(v) vi
dost thou sing? a gani ti a-ganyth-sy a ganith (t)i
does he sing? a gan ef a-gan-ef a gan ev
do we sing? a ganwm ni a-ganyn-ny a ganwm ni
do you sing? a ganwch chwi a-ganough-why a ganwch chwi
do they sing? a ganant hwy a-ganans-why a gananth hwy
bk.. The Negative Particle
In Medieval Welsh the negative particle NI was employed before vowels
and
consonants. This occasioned lenition. In Modern Welsh NID is employed
before
vowels and consonants and is followed by DDIM.
English Welsh ***bric
I do not sing nid wyf i ddim yn canu ni ganav
thou dost not sing nid wyt ti ddim yn canu ni gani
he does not sing nid yw ef ddim yn canu ni gan
we do not sing nid ym ni ddim yn canu ni ganon
you do not sing nid ych chwi ddim yn canu ni ganoch
they do not sing nid ynt hwy ddim yn canu ni gananth
Addenda.
placement Welsh Cornish Breton
before vowels nid...ddim nyns... ne...ket
before consonants ni...ddim ny... ne...ket
bl.. The Negative Relative Pronoun
The relaive pronoun has already been encountered above.
placement Welsh Cornish ***bric
before vowels nad nans na
before consonants na na na
bm.. The Affirmative and Negative responses
In Cornish and Welsh questiond are answered by repeating the verb>/p>
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
Yes I sing. Ydwyf, yr wyf i'n canu. Ya, yth-of-vy ow cana Ya,
canov
No I do not sing Nac ydwyf, nid wyf i ddim yn canu Nans-of-vy ow
cana Na, ni ganov
bn.. A Note of Advice upon Irregular Verbs
There are a number of irregular verbs in Welsh and Cornish. Irregular
verbs can be avoided by using the tenses of the verb to be as verbal
auxilliaries.
bo.. The Infinitive of the Verb To Go
The infinitive is always accompanied by a preposition. In English it is
either to teach or teaching but never to teaching. Welsh makes use of the
preposition yn, Cornish uses ow and Breton uses o. In Cornish when the
pronoun is the object of the infinitive as in the phrase orth-dha-dhysky
for
teaching you, the ow infinitive preposition becomes worth or orth. The
Breton the infinite preposition o is obviously related to Cornish worth.
This is the Cornish equivalent of the Welsh prefix gwrth, which means
anti-
or contra-. The odds are stacked two to one that ***bric employed Cornish
and Breton usage rather than the Welsh usage. ***bric therefore follows
Cornish and Breton usage as indeed it should.
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
to go yn mynd ow-mos (mones) o mont orth moneth
bp.. The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Go
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I (am) go(ing) af af an av
thou goest ei eth ez eth
he goes a a a a
we go awn en eomp on
you go ewch eugh it och, uch
they go ant ans eont anth
bq.. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Go
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
I was going awn en aen own
thou wert going ait es aes eth
he was going ai e ae e
we were going aem en aemp aim
you were going aech eugh aec'h aich
they were going aent ens aent ainth
br.. The Perfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
English Welsh Cornish ***bric
I went euthum yth awthum, owthum
thou went aethost ythyst aithos(th)
he went aeth eth aith (pron ath, eth)
we went aethom ethen aithom
you went aethoch etheugh aithoch
they went aethant ethons aithanth
bs.. The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Go English Welsh Cornish
***bric
I may go elwyf yllyf elov
thou mayest go elych ylly elych
he may go elo ello elo
we may go elom yllym elom
you may go eloch yllough eloch
they may go elont ellons elonth
bt.. The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Go English Welsh Breton ***bric
I would have gone aethwn afen athon
thou wouldst have gone aethit afes athith
he would have gone aethai afe athe
we would have gone aethem afemp athem
you would have gone aethech afec'h athech
they would have gone aethent afent athenth
bu.. The Verb To Do
The Cornish verb to do or to make appears variously as gul, guthyl,
gruthyl, and gwethyl, which corresponds to Welsh gwneud. The Cornish verb
can also be used as a verbal auxilliary answering to the English verb to
do
in phrases such as 'he does...' and 'he did'. English Welsh Cornish
***bric
I do/will do gwnaf gwraf gwnav
thou dost/wilt do gwnei gwreth gwne
he does/will do gwna gwra gwna
we do/will do gwnawn gwren gwnown
you do/will do gwnewch gwreugh gwrwch/gwroch
they do/will do gwnant gwrons gwranth
bv.. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Do English Welsh Cornish ***bric
I used to do gwneuthum gwruk gwnawthum/gwnowthum
thou used to do gwnaethost gwrussyn gwnathos(th)/gwnethos
he used to do gwnaeth gwruk gwnath/gwneth
we used to do gwnaethom gwrussyu gwnathom/gwnethom
you used to do gwnaethoch gwrussogh gwnathoch/gwnethoch
they used to do gwnaethant gwrussons gwnathanth/gwnethanth
bw.. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Do English Welsh Cornish Breton
***bric
bx.. The Verb To Come English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric
by.. The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Come English Welsh Cornish
Breton
***bric
bz.. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Come English Welsh Cornish
Breton
***bric
ca.. Other Irregular Verbs Declined Like the Verb To Be
Welsh verbs ending in bod (***bric bodd) such as canfod (to end), gwybod
(to know), gorfod (to be obliged), and hanfod (to originate from), are
declined like the verb bod (to be).
cb.. Verbs That Are Irregular in the Third Person Singular
Certain Welsh verbs are irregular in the third person singlular. English
1st. person Welsh
cc.. Prepositional Idioms
Need is expressed in Welsh by the noun esho together with the verb bod,
for example 'I want to but a book' is 'Y mae eisiau prynu llyfr anaf i',
which literally means 'There is need to buy a book upon me'. Other Welsh
nouns such as nouns that describe emotional and physical states, needs,
ailments, and pains can be used in the same way by using the verb to be
together with the preposition ar. Cornish uses the verb menas, meanining
to
will or wish, the Medieval Welsh equivalent of which is mynu.
cd.. The Gerund of the Verb
ce.. Re****ted Speech
In re****ted Speech Cwmbraic avoids Welsh complexities. In negative
statements Welsh adopts the relatives NA and NAD. Note that DW is
pronounced
like DW in red wing.
English: 'He says that the horse is not slow.'
Welsh: 'Y mae ef yn dweud nad yw'r ceffyl yn araf.'
***bric: 'Dwowdd (ev) nadd yw arav y capel.'
cf.. Adverbial Clauses
***bric also abandons Welsh usage in the case of adverbial the clause.
English; 'He says that the horse is not slow because it is not tired.'
Welsh; 'Y mae ef yn dweud nad yw'r ceffyl yn araf am nad yw ef yn
blinedig.'
***bric; 'Dewedd nadd-yew arav y capyl am nadd-yew yn blineddic.'
***bric adopts the relative A in positive statements.
'He says that the horse is slow.'
'Y mae ef yn dweud fod y ceffyl yn araf am ei fod ef yn blinedig.'
'Dewedd a-yew arav y capyl am yew en blineddic.'
cg.. The Present-Future Tense of the Verb to Have
English Welsh ***bric
I have/will have caf i cav mi
thou hast ce di ce di
he has caiff ef cef ev
we have cawn ni cown ni
you have cewch chwi cawch chwi
they have cant hwy cant hwi
ch.. The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Have
English Welsh ***bric
I had/used to have cawn i cown mi
thou hadst/used to have cait ti cat ti
he had/used to have cai ef ca ev
we had/used to have cawn ni cown ni
you had/used to have caech chwi cech chwi
they had/used to have caent hwy cent hwy
ci.. The Perfect Tense of the Verb To Have
English Welsh ***bric
I had cefais cevas
thou hadst cefaist cevast
he had cafodd cavoth
we had cawsom cowsom
you had cawsoch cowsoch
they had cawsant cowsanth
cj.. The Present/Future Subjubctive of the Verb to Have English Welsh
***bric
I may have caffwyf cafov
thou mayest have ceffych di cefech di
he may have caffo cafo
we may have caffom cafom
you may have caffoch cafoch
they may have caffont cafonth
ck.. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Have English Welsh ***bric
I might have caffwn cafon
thou might have caffit cafith
he might caffai cafa
we might caffem cafem
you might caffech cafech
they might caffent cafenth
cl.. Requests and the Verb To Have
Te verb cael becomes a polite request when it appears in the form of a
question.
English: 'May I have a seat?'
Welsh: 'A gaf i sedd?'
***bric: 'A gav (v)i seth?
cm.. Prefixes
Welsh Cornish ***bric Comment
a a Intensive prefix followed by aspirate mutation.
af Negative prefix, no mutation.
am am Prefix meaning 'around' or 'about' followed by soft
mutation.
an an Negative prefix, no mutation.
ar ar Intensive prefix meaning 'much' or 'very' or 'over'
answering
to English 'over-', 'super-', and 'hyper-', followed by soft mutation,
viz.
Newton Arlosh.
cam cam Prefix meaning 'wrong' answering to English 'mis-',
followed by soft mutation.
can can Prefix meaning 'with' answering to English 'co-' and
'com-', followed by soft mutation.
cyn Prefix meaning 'soft', followed by soft mutation.
cynt Prefix meaning 'before' answering to English 'pre-' and
'ante-', no mutation.
di di Prefix meaning 'without' used before consonants, followed
by
soft mutation.
dis dis Prefix meaning 'without' used before vowels.
go go Diminutive prefix meaning 'under' answering to English
'sub-'
and 'hypo', followed by soft mutation.
gor gor Prefix meaning 'over' answering to English 'hyper-' and
'super-', followed by aspirate mutation.
gwrth Prefix answering to the English prefix 'contra-', followed
by soft mutation.
hy Prefix meaning 'well' 'fine' or 'able' answering to the
English
suffix -able, (e.g. W. hygar meaning amiable from car meaning a friend),
followed by soft mutation.
ledd leth Prefix meaning 'half' answering to English 'half-',
'semi-', 'hemi-', 'demi-', followed by soft mutation,viz. Larbet.
pryf Prefix meaning 'chief' or 'high' answering to the English
prefix 'arch-, followed by soft mutation.
rhy Prefix meaning 'too' or 'very', followed by soft mutation.
rhyng Prefix answering to English 'inter-'', followed by soft
mutation.
try Prefix meaning 'through', followed by soft mutation.
um Reflexive pronoun meaning 'self' answering to English
'self-',
'sui-', 'auto-'.
cn.. Suffixes
Welsh possesses a large number of suffixes many of which, strictly
speaking, are not necessary. The following selection, two examples of
which
can be found in English place-names, can be used in ***bric.
Welsh Cornish ***braic Comment
ach agh ac'h This suffix is used to form abstract nouns.
ant ans ant
der der der Corresponds to English -ness and -ity. Variants
are -dra, -ter, -tra
i y i This suffix is found in the early spellings of several
English
river-names.
wr or or This suffix forms the agent when added to a noun.
wraig wrek wraic Feminine of the above.
es es This suffix forms a feminine agent.
ig ik ic This suffix is a diminutive, viz. Carrick and Caraveric.
og ok oc An adjectival suffix meaning 'possessing' or 'full of',
corresponds to English -full, viz. Cardurnock.
ol ol ol An adjectival suffix meaning 'having the nature of' and
corresponds to English -like, -ish, -ous
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