Camow Cwntaf yn Gwmbraic - First Steps in Cumbric
Introduction
I must confess that most of this work has already been done by other, and
I
have just gathered the pieces together, for example I base this
translation
of Shepherd's notation into Cumbric upon Ted Relph's version. Ted is a
member of the Lakeland Dialect Society. Un, dwy, tair, pedair, pym,
chwych,
saith, wyth, deg, un ar ddec, dawddec, tair ar ddec, pedair ar ddec,
pymthec, un ar bymthec, dwy ar bymthec, dawnou ar bymthec, ugain. Most of
the work has already been done for me, and my only contribution is to
discover small discrepancies, such as dec for deg, un ar ddhec for un ar
ddeg, and so on. I cannot take credit for the Reconstruction of Cumbric
alone; I could do nothing without the research of others.
Although many Cumbric words have survived in Scots and English
examples
of written Cumbric take precedence. Concerning the survival of Cumbric
vocabulary, Mr. Whittaker in Volume Two, pages 233 to 329, in his History
of
Manchester, has provided a list of three thousand North Country Cumbric
words that have entered the vocabulary of Standard English. In addition
Mr.Davies supplied in a paper that he contributed to The Transactions of
the
Philological Society in 1885 another long list of North Country Cumbric
words that have passed into Standard English. Mr. Davies commented that
many
low, burlesque, and obscene words in the Lancashire dialect can be traced
back to Cumbric. Furthermore, Mr. Garnet in Volume One, page 171, of the
Transaction of the Philological Society, also supplied a similar list of
Cumbric words. Proof of the late survival of Cumbric as a spoken language
in
Cumbria exists in the place-name Cumwhinton, which contains the Norman
personal name Quinton, and which means Quinton's Valley. In addition the
survival of Cumbric field-names and the presence of three Cumbric words in
a
medieval manuscript called Leges Inter Brettos et Scottos lend further
support for the persistence of Cumbric. The so called Shepherd's
enumeration, which in fact was mainly used by knitters, must also be taken
into account. Cumbric arose from Prythonic, which was the ancestor of all
P
Celtic languages. Prythonic developed into Proto-Welsh, Proto-Breton,
Proto-Cornish, and Proto-Cumbric. Proto-Cumbric was widely spoken
throughout
Scotland, Northern England, and in the North Midlands. It is possible that
the area in which Proto-Cumbric was spoken even stretched much further
south. Place-name evidence reveals that Cumbric shared features in common
with both Welsh and Cornish, and while in some ways Cumbric was more
innovative than either Welsh or Cornish, certain features of Cumbric can
only be described as being archaic. Some place-names, such as Pennigant in
Scotland and Penyghent in England, have preserved elements of what may
have
been two dialects of Cumbric, for example the morpheme -gant and -ghent
are
derived from the Cumbric word *caint, which means a plateaux, and which
was
variously pronounced as *cant and *cent. Some Cumbric place-names, such as
Larbet and Eccle Fechan, have even preserved elements of Cumbric grammar.
These grammatical elements indicate that Cumbric was, with a few
exceptions,
identical to Medieval Welsh. This of course opens up the possibility of
reconstructing Cumbric in much the same was that Nance reconstructed
Kernewek, and other scholars reconstructed Cornoak. Kernewek is a
reconstruction of medieval Cornish, whereas Cornoak is the reconstruction
of
Cornish as it would have been spoken just before its demise. A similar
division between reconstructed early and reconstructed late Cumbric can be
by deriving early reconstructed Cumbric from place-names, and late
reconstructed Cumbric from the surviving Cumbric word in Scots and North
Country dialect. Although paucity of vocabulary is no obstacle to the
reconstruction of Cumbric, for example Basic English contains a core
vocabulary of no more that a thousand words; it is possible to borrow
Welsh
words, which indeed was done by Nance. In addition the edition of the
Times
newspaper of the 3rd. January 1991 carried a report that first appeared in
Le Mond, according to which Lukiann Kergoat, the head of Breton and Celtic
Studies at the University of Rennes, and chairperson of a committee called
Kreizhenn ar Geriauin, intended to create twenty thousand new Breton word
in
order to bring Breton up to date by respelling Welsh words. Northern
England
was guest to a large number of Danish and Norwegian settlers, mostly
farmers
and traders. Place-names such as Blennerhasset in Cumbria indicate that
Scandinavian words were absorbed into Cumbric, thus allowing the modern
words of science and technology, such as *telefision, to be adopted in
Reconstructed Cumbric, thus following the example of Basic English. In
addition many Roman laws, taxes, policing, and modes of administration are
recorded in the Doomsday Book as having survived in Northern England.
Archaeological evidence at Wharram Percy, and field and air surveys over
the
North Yorkshire Moors, reveal continuity throughout the sub-Roman period
without any evidence for the replacement of the native Romano-British
population by Anglo-Saxons. The importance of this lies in the fact that
the
abandoned settlements and villages in the area, which arose from the
eviction of the population in order to create grazing land for sheep, are
veritable time capsules going back to the Roman occupation of Britain. The
smallness of numbers of Angles in the North-East of England is indicated
by
the fact that once during a siege the Anglian population retired to
Bamborough Rock, which would indicate that a small number of Angles ruled
over a large population of Celtic peasants. The fate of these Angles after
the Danish settlement of Northern England is uncertain, but it is unlikely
that any of the Anglo-Saxons survived, at best some might have continued
as
broken men, and others would have departed. The reconstruction of Cumbric
will at least restore a version of the ancient language not only of
Northern
England, but also of Scotland. Northern England, which some authors have
called Brigantia, lost its last vestige of autonomy when the Council of
the
North, which sat at York, was abolished in 1640 AC.
In the interests of promoting the use of Reconstructed Cumbric, copyright
is waived on condition that Cumbric is described as a native language of
Scotland and Brigantia. Please remember.
List of Abbreviations
Bret. Breton
Chs. Cheshire
c. circa
cf. confer
Corn. Cornish (Kernewek)
Cu. Cumberland
Db. Derbyshire
Dur. Durham
Lancs. Lancashire
Lei. Leicestershire
M.W. Medieval Welsh
Nrth. Northumberland
Notts, Notthinghamshire
R.C. Reconstructed Cumbric
Shr. Shropshire
Shrews. Shrewsbury
Staffs. Staffordshire
Wor. Worcestershire
Wst. Westmorland
W. Welsh
Yorks. Yorkshire
Cumbric Place-Names
A
Aberruthven: nr. Auchterrarder, Scot., cf. W. aber rudd faen, Corn. aber
ruth ven, (red stone conflux), R.C. *aber rudd fain.
Ashton-in-Makerfield: Lancs.., Ashton c.1225, cf. Ince-in-Makerfield;
cf.W.
magwyr & Corn magor (wall or ancient ruin). R.C. *magwy, variant *magor,
see
Eaglesfield.
Aspatria: Cu., Aspatric c.1230, a Norse-Cumbric hybrid, this place-name
preserves a Cumbric genitive.
B
Bannock Burn: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. banog bryn. R.C. *bannawk or banoc
bryn
Barpennald: Cu., cf.W. bar pen allt & Corn. bar pen als, (top of chief
cliff). R.C. *bar pen alth
Barroc Fell: Cu., Barroc c.1295, cf. M.W. barawg, a spur. This place-name
preserves a Cumbric adjectival suffix.
Barwick-in-Elmet: cf.W. *Barwyg-yn-Elved, bar (hilltop) and gwyg
(coppice).
Bathgate: Scot., Bathchet, c.1160, Bathkethe c.1337, cf.W.baedd goed &
Corn.
both gos, (boar's wood). R.C. * baith gaith. NB. the lenition in the
modern
name; this is indicative of the persistence of Cumbric in the area.
Birdoswald: Cu., Borddoswald c.1200, cf.W. buarth, (cow fold of dairy);
cf.
Burtholm. R.C. *burth
Birkby: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, N. Breta Skogr, (Britton's Wood.); cf.
Briscow.
Blawith: Cu., Blawit c.1276, cf., W. blaedd wydd & Corn. blydd with (wolf
wood). R.C. *blaith with
Blencarn: Cu., Blencarne c.1159, Blenecarn c.1210, Blencarn 1211, cf. W.
blaen y carn, cf. Corn. blyn an carn, (top of the burial mound); R.C.
*blain
carn, blain y carn
Blencathra: Cu., Blenkarthure c. 1589, cf. W. blaen cader, (throne
summit);
R.C. *blain cadder. The alternative name for this fell is Saddleback.
Blencogo: Cu., Blenecogou c.1292, cf. W. blaen y cogau & Corn. blyn an
cogas, (hill of cuckoos). R.C. *blain y cogow. This place name preserves a
Cumbric suffix.
Blencow: Cu. Blenkhaw c.1254. A hybrid Cumbric-Norse place-name, *blain
(haugr) meaning hill top.
Blennerhesset: Cu. Blennerhaiseta c. 1188, a hybrid Cumbric-Norse
place-name, *blain yr haisetr, meaning crest of the hay field. This
place-name establishes that the definite article y became yr before H.
Blindcrake: Cu. Blenecrayc c.1268, cf. W. blaen y cr aig, (summit of the
rock); R.C. *blain y craic.
Brant Fell: Yorks. a hybrid Cumbric-Norse place-name meaning steep
hill/mountain. The word brant, together with its variant brent, are still
in
use as a dialect word meaning steep. This is an example of the survival of
Cumbric in dialect as well as in a place-name.
Bredon: Lei. Briudun c.730, meaning either the summit of a down or a fort.
Breedon: Wor. Beodun c.722, as above.
Briscow: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, see Birkby.
Burtholm: Cu., Burtholm c.1256, a hybrid Cumbric-Norse place-name meaning
a
dairy or cow fold on the spur of a hill. See. Birdoswald.
C
Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunplelder, cf.W. carn dinas (a mound retreat). A
dinas was a temporary fortified retreat as distinct from caer, which was a
permanent stone-built stronghold such as a castle or farm-house, also cf.
Dinas Sitch Tor, Db. behind the Snake in on Snake Pass.
Calder: Lancs., Kalder c.1200, cf. W. place-names Calettwr and Clettwr,
(hard water, i.e. fast flowing river), W. called dwr; R.C. *caleth *dwr.
The
word cal has acquired a new meaning in Welsh and Cornish, therefore it is
supposed the original was*Calthdwr.
Cambeck: Nth. Camboc c.1169, Cambec c.1622, (a meandering stream).
Camblesford: Yorks. Camelesford c.1311, cf.W. cam y lais, (bend on the
stream). R.C. *cam y lais.
Camerton: Cu., Camerton c. 1150, cf.W. cymmer, (conflux), R.C. *cwmmer.
Capledre: Scot. Lochere in Linlithgow, cf.W. ceffyl dre, (horse town) R.C.
*capel dre, cappel is a dialect word meaning a horse.
Capplerigg: Cu., see Capledre above.
Caraverick: Cu., Caraverick c.1150, the name of a lost settlement in Leath
Ward of Cumberland. Caraverick c.1150, cf.W. caer efrog (farmhouse amid
cowslips), R.D. *cair *afyric. NB. the intrusive y before R and initial E
changed to A.
Carcowe: Wst. a field-name in West Ward of Westmorland. A hybrid
Cumbric-Norse field-name, *Cair Haugr. The importance of a Celtic word
appearing in a field-name is that it indicates a late survival of spoken
Cumbric in West Ward.
Cardew: Cu., Carthew c.1287, cf. W. caer ddu, (black farmhouse), R.C.
*cair
*ddu.
Cardrona: Traquair in Peebles, Scot., Cardronow c. 1500, cf.W. caer
dronau,
(fort circle, i.e., of standing stones), R.C. *cair dronow. This place
name
contains the cambric plural -ow.
Cardunneth Pike: Cu., Cardunnoke c.1386, cf.W. caer Dunod, (Donatus'
farmhouse), R.C. *cair Dunoth: see also Dintsmere, Chs., boundary of
Donatus, also see Dinting, Chs., Dintinge, c. 1226, place of Donatus,
Dinthill, Shrews., Dunthill c. 1200, hill of Dontatus, R.C. *Dunoth.,
Cardurnock: Cu., Cardrunnoke, c. 1386, cf.W. caer *durenog (pebbly
farmhouse), c f. W. duren (pebble, steel, flint). NB. the disappearance of
E
between consonant R and nasal N. R.C. *cair durnoc.
Carfrae: Scot., Lauderdale in Berwickshire, cf.W. caer fre (hill fort).
NB.
this place-name has preserved the lenition of B into V. R.V. *cair fre
Cark: Lancs. Karke c.1491, cf.W. careg (stone). NB. the disappearance of E
between the consonants R and K. R.C. * carc.
Carkin: Yorks. Karrecan c. 1200, Kercan, c. 1200, cf.W. careg can (white
stone). See also Cargo, Cu. From Carec Haugr, hybrid Celtic-Norse
place-name
meaning White Hill. NB. the disappearance of E after R and before C. R.C.
*carc can.
Carnetly: Cu., Carnthelaue c.1230. (Burial Mound of Teilo.), cf.,
Llanteilo
in Wales. NB. that this place-name appears to preserve an aspirate
mutation.
R.C. * carn teilo.
Carwath: Scot., Lanarkshire, Karnewid c.1179, Carnewithe c.1315, Carnwith
c.
1451, cf.W. carn y gwydd (durial mound of trees), cf. Corn. carn an gwyth.
R.C. *carn y gwydd.
Carrick: Wst., cf. local dialect word currock and currick meaning a cairn
or
heap of stones, cf. Carrick in Scotland. The survival of Cumbric words in
Scots and North Country dialect serves as the basis of the argument that
Cumbric never really died out.
Carrock Fell: Cu., Carroc c. 1208, cf.W. carog (fenced, walled, or
fortified).R.C. *caroc.
Carwinley: Cu., Carwyndelawe c. 1292, Karwendelowe c.1281, Carwyndelowe
c.1300, cf. W. caer Wenddoleu (Gwenddoleu's Castle). R.C. *cair Wenddolaw.
Castle Carrock: Cu., Castelcairoc x.1165, Castelcarroc c. 1212, cf. W.
castell caerog. R.C. *castel cairoc.
Castel Hewin: Cu., Castelewyne c.1272, Castle Hewin c.1794, cf.W. castell
Ewain (Owen's castle). This castle is legended to have been the castle of
Eugenius Caesarius, a king of Cumbria who expelled the Angles and
re-established British rule after the Saxons had been driven out. R.C.
*castel Ewain. RC. *cader lan.
Catterlen: Cu., Caderlen c. 1165, cf. W. cader llan (hermitage throne).
Cader in this case is from the Greek word kathedra meaning a bishop's
throne. Cumberland, as well as Elmet and Cornwall, were Christian
throughout
the sub-Roman era, and were not reconverted to Christianity by Irish
monks.
Catterton: Yorks. Cadreton c.1230, a hybrid English and Cumbric place-name
meaning fort enclosure. NB. This place-name preserves a Saxon word just as
Blennerhasset has preserved a Norse word.
Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunpelder, this could possible mean the burial
mound of Dionysius.
Chadderton: Lancs. see Catterton.
Cheadle: Chs. Chedle c.1153 (wood hill). A hybrid Cumbric and English
place
name.
Cheetham: Lancs. Chetham c. 1226 (wood pasture) A hybrid Cumbric and
English
place name.
Clesketts: Cu. Closchet c.1245, cf.W. clas coed (glebe wood), clas is an
enclosed space, a green covering of grass, or glebe land. R.C. *clas
caidd.
Comberbach: Chs. Comburbach c.1333 (stream of the Cwmbro), cf.W. cymro,
Corn. kembro, from Prythonic cumbrogi meaning a compatriot. R.C. * *cwmbro
boc. NB. In Cumbric W and O did not become Y before nasal plus stop as in
Welsh, Breton, and Cornish. This is a distinctive feature of Cumbric, one
of
several that indicate that Cumbric was a separate language even though
similar to Welsh.
Combermere: Chs. Cumbremara c.1157, (compatriot wasteland). R.C. *cwmbru
myr.
Comberford: Staffs, this indicates that Cumbric was once spoken in the
North
Midlands, see also. Wor. Comberton, Lancs Comberhalgh.
Condor: Lancs. Condovere c.1246, cf.W. cam dwfr (crooked waters). R.C.
*cam
dwfr.
Coulderton: Cu., Culdreton c.1180, cf.W. cul dir (narrow land). R.C. *cul
dir. This is a very interesting place name because it acquired the English
word ton in the 12th.century, which would indicate that it was about this
time that Scots began to replace Cumbric in Cumberland, which was the last
refuge of spoken Cumbric.
Couwhencatte: Cu., Cumquencath c.1169. (Gwencad's valley). Gwencad is a
personal name that means White Battle. R.C. *cwm Cwencadd. NB. the
mutation
of G into C.
Culcheth: Lancs., Culchet c.1201, Kulcheth c.1246, cf. W. cul goed (narrow
wood), RC. *cul gaidd.
Culgaith: Cu., Culchet c.1203, Culgayth c.1232, cf. W. cul goed (narrow
wood). Culgayth and Culgaith are verifications of the Reconstructed
Cumbric
*cul gaidd.
Cumcath: Cu., Cumcache c.1292, cf.W. cwm cach (dung valley), RC. *cwm
cach.
Cumcrook: Cu., Cumcruk c.1295, cf.W. cwm crug (valley mound), RC. *cwm
cruc.
Cumdivock: Cu., Cumdevoc c. 1244. Devoc's Valley, Prythonic personal name
Dubacos meaning Dark or Swathy Man, cf.W. duog (dark), RC. *dufoc. NB. the
persistence of the intrusive F, which is absent in the Welsh version of
this
adjective.
Cummersdale: Cu. Cumbredal c.1227. A hybric Cumbric and Norse place name
meaning the Valley of the Cymru, cf. also Cumberland: Cumbraland c.945,
cf.
also Cumberhill in Derbyshire, Cumberworth in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire,
see also Cumberbach cf. W. Cymru, RC. *Cwmbru. NB. The persistence of stop
B
after nasal M, and the persistence of W before nasal plus stop.
RC. *Cwmbru
Cumrew: Cu., Cumreu c.1200, Cumrew c.1209, cf.W. cwm rhiw, (valley slope).
RC. *cwm riw.
Cumwhinton: Cu., Cumquinton c.1227. Quinton's Valley. Quinton is a
Norman-French personal name. This place-name is proof that Cumbric was
spoken after William Duke of Normandy succeeded Edward the Confessor.
Crakeplace Hall: Cu., Crakeplace c.1288, cf.W. craig plas (stone manor).
RC.
*craic plas.
Crew: Chs. Cruwe c.1190, Cruue c.1288, cf.W. cryw (a ford or stepping
stones), cf. Crewgarth in Cumberland,cf. W. cryw garth (ford farm)..RC.
*cryw garth
Crich: Db., Cryc c.1009, cf.W. crug (a hill). RC. *cruc.
Crickheath: Shr., Cruchet c.1272, cf.W. crug (a mound). RC. *cruc gaidd
(wood containing a burial mound).
Crofton Bridge: Cu., formerly Waspatrickwath, meaning the Ford of
Patrick's
Servant. Patrick was a local saint who attained fame in Ireland,
Gwaspatrick
or Sevant of Patrick was a local fore-name.
Cruckton: Shr. Crocton c.1272, Crokton c.1308, cf. W. crug (burial mound),
RC. *cruc.
D
Dacre: Cu., Dakre c.1292, cf. W. deigre (a tear drop). Dacre refers to a
nearby stream, cf. Dacre in Yorkshire. NB. that the Welsh diphthong EI,
pronounced as I, eye, and aye in English is pronounced as short A in
Cumbric. RC. *daicre.
Dacre Beck: Cu., Dakerbek c.1323, RC. *daicre boc (tear stream).
Dalkieth: Scot., Dolchet c.1144, Dalkethe c.1337, cf.W. dal coed (meadow
wood). RC.* dal caidd.
Dalfibble: Scot., Dumfries, cf.W. dal pebyll (spread tent), RC.*dal febyl.
NB. the mutation of P into F in this Cumbric place-name.
Dane: Chs. Dauuen c.1220, Daan c.1416, cf.W. dafn (a drip), cf. also
Davenport in Cheshire meaning 'Drip Paved Road'. RC.*dafn.
Desoglin: Cu., Dassoglen c.1596. Oglen is related to the Welsh ogl meaning
full of motion or life, in Welsh das means a heap. This place name could
be
construed to mean a heap of a certain substance that is full of certain
living beings, but it probably refers to nearby marshy ground. RC. *das
oglyn.
Devoke: Duvokeswater c. 1205, Duffockiswatir c.1280, the place-name means
Dubacos' Lake, water referring to a lake or loch.
Dinthill: Shrews. Duntull c.1299, (Donatus' hill), cf. Dintsmere: Chs.
Donatus' boundary mark, also Dinting: Chs. Duntinge c.1226,
(Donatus'place),
Dinwiddie: Scot. Roxburgh, Dunwedy c.1504, cf. Dunwoody in Dumfries, cf.
W.
gwyddfa (woody place, a Bardic seat), and cf. Gwyddfa (Snowdon). NB.,
Dinwiddie and Dunwoody would be suitable places to hold a Scottish
Eisteddfod.
Dollerline: Cu., Dallerline c.1598, cf.W. dol ar lefniad (loop on the
smoothness). RC. *dol ar lefni. This place name refers to an ox-bow.
Douglas: Lancs., cf.W. glais (a stream), see also Diggles in Lancashire,
both meaning black stream. RC. *du glais, NB. that the adjective precedes
the noun. Douglas is also the surname of a well known Lancashire family,
and
is also used as a forename.
Dove Dale: Db. Duuendale c.1296, cf. River Dove in Derbyshire, Dufan
c.951,
Duue c. 1228, cf. also Dove Holes in Derbyshire. RC. *dufyn, diminutive of
*duf meaning dark.
Dover Beck: Notts. Doverbec c.1227, cf.W. dwfr (waters). RC. *dwfr boc
(stream of waters).
Dunreggit: Scot., Fort of Rheged, see Rochdale. Rheged was a British
kingdom
that included S.E. Scotland and N.W. England. RC. *dwn regedd.
Dreva: Scot., Tweed. Cf.W. y dre fa (the village place). RC. *y dre fa.
NB.
the lenition.
Drumburgh: Cu., Drumboc c.1225. Old Welsh drwm bach (small ridge). RC.
*drwm
bach.
E
Eccles: Lancs. Eccles c.1200, cf. Yorks Ecclesall, Eccleshale c.1205, cf.
Ecclesfield, Ecclesfeld c.1109, Eccleshill, and Lancs. Eccleston,
Ecclestine
c. 1190, Great & Little Eccleston, Ecleston c.1285, and Db Eccles Pike,
Ecclesbourne, and Staff. Eccleshall, and Drh. Egglescliffe, and Cu.
Eglesfield, Eglesfeld c.1290, and Scot. Ecclefechan, cf. W. eglwys & Corn.
Eglos, NB. the archaicism of these place-names in that the final vowel
remained unchanged. RC. *egles.
Eddleston: Scot. Formerly Pentiacob, Jacob's penthouse. RC. *pent Iacob
Eglesbreth: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. eglwys braith. R.C. egles braith
Etherow: Chs. Ederhou c.1221, Ederou c.1285, Edderowe c.1290, cf. W. edd
(glide), and haw (sluggish). RC. *edd yr how.
Ewanrigg: Co. Evenrigg c.1295, Ouenrig c.1332, Owain's Ridge. RC. *Owain
G
Gawswoth: Chs. Gouseworth c. 1276, cf.W. gof (a smith). RC. *gof
Gilcrux: Cu. Killecruce c. 1175, cf.W. cil y crug (retreat by the
hillock).
Rc. *cil y cruc.
Glasgow: Scot. Glasgu c.1136, cf.W. glas gau (green hollow). RC. *glas
gow.
Glencoyn: Cu.Glencaine c.1212 Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291, cf.W. glyn
cawn (valley of reed). RC. *glyn cown
Glencoyne: Wst. Glencaine c.1212, Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291,
Glenkwent c.1577, Glenkwen c.1622. NB. This and the above place-name have
been influence by the imposition of the English Gaelic word cain, meaning
beautiful. The elements of English Gaelic in place-names are too few to
attempt the reconstruction of English Gaelic.
Glendermackin: Cu. Glenermakon c.1278, cf.W. glyn y magon (valley of
berries.) RC. *glyn y macon.
Glenderterra: Cu. Glunduvar c.1247, Glenderterray c.1729, cf.W. glyn dwfr
terion (valley of pure water.) RC. *glyn dwfr terion. NB. The 18thcent.
place-name has preserved *terion.
Glenridding: Wst. Glenredyn c.1292, cf.O.W. glinn redin, W. glyn rhedyn.
Glensax: Scot. Peebles, and Gensaxon in Dumfries, cf.W. glyn sais (Saxon
Valley.) RC. *glyn saix. NB. The Cumbric archaism preserves the
penultimate
C.
Goyt: Chs. Recorded as both Gwith and Gote in the 14th cent., cf.W. gwyth
(a
narrow channel), Corn. goth & gwith. RC. *gwyth & goth. NB. The Welsh
diphthong WY appears either as WI or O in Cumbric and Cornish. The
pronunciation of long O as the diphthong OI was once a feature of the
local
dialect.
Govan: Scot. Mid Lothian, Guun c.1134, Guuan c. 1150, Govan c. 1275, Gwuan
c. 1275, cf. W. ban (point, hill, or crest). R.C. *gwovan also *govan (a
small hill or slight crest of land).
Gragareth: The Three Men of Gragareth: Yorks, Whernside, a topographical
feature. Could be reconstructed into Welsh as y tri mein y gorgaered,
meaning the three rocks (y tri mein) of the limit (gor) of the city wall
(gaered). RC. *y tri mein y gor gairedd.
H
Hesketh: Lancs. Heschate c.1288, Heskayth c.1298, c.W. hais coed (prickle
wood). RC. *hais caidd.
Heskin: Lancs. Heskyn c.1257, cf. W. hesgen (sedge, rush). RC. *hescen.
Hints: Staff. Hintes c.1199, also Hints, Shr. Hintes c. 1242, Hyntes
c.1292,
cf.W. hynt (road, way, course). RC. *hynt
I
Ince: Chs. Ynes c.1100, also Ince in Makerfield, cf.W. ynys. RC. *ynys
Inchkieth: Scot., cf.W. ynys coed (island wood). RC. *ynys caith.
K
Kent: Lancs. A river-name, also Kennet, cf.W.cynnwyd (primary element).
RC.
*cynnwith, var. *cynnoth.
Kenyon: Lancs. Kenien c.1212, cf.W. crug Enion (Enion's burial mound). RC.
*cruc Enion.
Ketton: Rut. Ketene c.1174, Chetena c.1146, cf.W. coeden (a tree). RC.
*caidden
Kieth: Scot. Mid Lothian, this has inspired the personal name Kieth, which
means a wood, cf. W. coed, Corn. cos, and Bret. Koaz.. R.C. *caidd
Kirkbrynnok: Cu. c.1339. A lost place-name, Kirkja Brynach, Brynach's
Church. Note the adoption of a Norse word yet Celtic grammar.
Kirkcambeck: Cu. Camboc c.1177, Kirkecamboc c.1280. Church (kirkja) on the
crooked stream (camboc).
Kirkley: Nth. Crikelawa c. 13th. Cent. A hybrid Celtic Saxon word meaning
hill (cruc) hill (hlaw).
L
Lamplough: Cu. Lamplou c. 1150, cf.W. llan plwyf, (parish church), cf.
Corn.
lan plov. RC. *lan plof.
Lanark: Scot. Cf.W. llanerch (hay-field). RC. *lanarch. NB. The short E
before R plus stop has become short A.
Landican: Cu. Landekan c. 1281, cf. Llandegfan in Anglesay, Tegfan's
Church.
RC. *lan decfan. NB. Note the lenition.
Lanercost: Cu. Lanercost c. 1271, cf.W. llanerch Awst, Augustus's
hay-field.
RC. *lan Owst.
Lanrekaythin: Cu. Lanrecaithin c.1210. A lost place-name, cf.W. llanerch
eithin (meadow of furze). RC. *lanarch aithin.
Larbet: Scot., Sterlingshire, Lethberth c. 1196, cf.W. leddberth
(semi-bush). RC. *leddberth.
Laver: Yorks. Lauer c. 1307, also. Laversdale in Cumberland, Laverton in
Yorkshire, a river-name, cf.W. llafr (spreading) RC. * lafer.
Leeds: Yorks. Loidis c.730 (Bede), Ledes c.1196, possible a river-name
meaning flowing.
Leen: Notts. Liene c.1200, also Lyne in Northumberland, Lina c.1050, cf.W.
lliant (torent). RC. *lian. NB. Absence of final S.
Leswalt: Scot. Galloway, cf.W. llys wellt (grassy court of manour house).
RC. *lys walt. NB. Note the change of short E into short A before liquid
plus stop. In Welsh gwallt means hair.
Leven: Chs. A river-name, Levene c.12^0, also Leven in Lancashire and
Yorkshire, cf.W. llyfniad (smootness). RC. *lyfeni.
Lickle: Lancs. River-name, Licul c.1140, cf.O.W. llig (gliding out or
through). RC. *licol (abounding in water courses)..
Lindefferon: Scot. Fife, see Hint, cf.W. llyn dwr hynt (flowing water
course). RC.*lin dwr hynt.
Lindow: Chs. cf.W. llyn ddu (black lake).
Lindreth: Cu. cf.W. llyn ddrud (flow-rapid, i.e. a torrent). RC. *lin
ddrudd.
Lingmell Crag: cf W. grug moel craig (heather-bald crag). RC. * ling mail
craic.
Linlithgow: Scot. Linlithcou c.1150, cf.W. llyn llaith cau (lake wet
hollow). RC. *lin laith cow.
Liscard: Chs. Lisenecark c.1256, cf.W. llys y carreg (stone manour house).
RC. lis yn carrec. NB. The definite article yn.
Liverpool: Lancs. Liverpul c.1194, Litherpol c.1222, cf. W. llifr pwl
(conflux pool) and litthr pwl (slip pool). This is a reference to a small
pool that gave haven to fishing boats in medieval times, and which later
served as a dock, but which has since been filled in. RC. *lifr pwl,
*lithr
pwl.
Lothersdale: Yorks. Loderesden c.1202, Lothereston c.1285, also Lauderdale
in Scotland, cf.W. lleidr (bandit), and cf. Corn lader (a thief). RC. *
cwm
laiddr (bandit valley).
Lyne: Cu. Luene c.1292. RC. *lefeni. See Leven above.
Lyvennet: Wst. River-name Levenyd c.1292, Leveneth c.1292. This river is
called Llwyfenyd in the Welsh translation of Taliesin's original Cumbric
poem Urien of Rheged. RC. *lofenydd.
Lizard: Shp. Lusgerde c.664, lisgarde c.1291, cf.W. llys garth (court
farm).
RC. *lys garth.
M
Mabbin Hill: Wst. personal name Mabon.
Macefen: Chs. Masefen c.1260, cf.W. maes y ffin (field at the boundary).
RC.
*mais y ffin.
Maidencastle: Cu. formerly Carthonock c.1589, Thannock's Castle.
Mallerstang: Wst. Malrestang c.1223, Malvestang c.1228, cf.W. moel fre
(bald
mountain), and cf. Nor. stongr (staff). RC. *mail fre stang.
Mamhead: Db. Mammeheved c.1242, cf.W. maen (a stone), cf.Manchester,
Mansfield, Mamesfeld c.1093, Mam Tor, etc. RC. *main. NB. This place name
includes the Norse word for head.
Manor: Scot., Peebles, Maner c.1323, cf.W. maenor (a district marked by
stones, or a manor house). RC. *mainor.
Maryport: Cu. formerly Aylnfoote c.1656. The river Ayln was called the
Alavna in Roman times. Ayln foot means the mouth of the Ayln; this is a
Celtic turn of phrase. Sir Humphrey Senhouse changed Aylnfoot into
Maryport
after his wife Mary.
Maughonby: Cu. Merchamby c.1254. A Cumbric-Norse hybrid place-name meaning
Mercion's farm, from Roman personal name Marcianus. NB. The survival of
Romano-British personal names would suggest the survival of a
Romano-British
population.
Meckfen: Scot, Perthshire, Mekfen c. 1226, Mecven c.1443, cf.W. mign maen
(bog stone). RC. *myc fain.
Megget Water: Scot., Selkirkshire, also Meggeth, Cu., cf.W. mignydd (a
bog),
also
mignoedd (bogs). RC. * mygydd, pl. *mygaidd.
Meigle: Scot., Perthshire, Migdele in The Legend of Saint Michael, cf.W.
mign dol (bog meadow). RC. *mig dol.
Melkinthorpe: Wst. Melcanetorp c.1150, cf. O.W. personal name Mailcun,
cf.O.Ir. Maelcian.
Mellor: Lancs. Melver c.1246, also Mellor Db. Melner c.1330, cf.W. moel
fre
(bald hill). RC. *mail fre.
Melrose: Scot., cf.W. moel rhos, also Corn. mol ros (bald heath). RC. *
mail
ros.
Menstrie: Scot. Clackmannen, Mestry c.1315, Menstry c.1392, cf.W. maes y
tre, also Corn. mes an tre (village of the open plain). RC. *mais tre,
and
*mais yn tre. NB. The spellings menstry suggest that the definite article
became yn before a dental.
Methvan: Scot., Perthshire, Methven c.1211, cf.W. medd faen, also Corn.
meth
ven (mead stone). RC. *medd fain.
Migvie: Scot., Stratherrich, cf.W. mign fa (a boggy place). RC.* mig fy
Morcambe Bay: Lancs. Cf. W. mor cam (crooked sea). NB. This is an example
of
a trap for the unwary. Morcambe Bay was suggested by in Whitaker's The
History of Manchester 1771, as the sight of Ptolemy's Marikambe. There is
a
Marricambe Bay in Cumberland whose origin is obscure. Pennines is another
such trap. The original name was Riggings, meaning the Ridges. The name
Pennines is an adaptation of the Appenines in Italy.
Morphie: Scot., Kincardine, cf.W. mor fa (sea place). RC. * mor fy.
N
Newton Arlosh: Cu. Arlosk c.1185, cf.W. llosg (fire). RC. *arlosc (land
cleared by burning) NB. Arlosh contains the intensive prefix ar- (over),
this indicates that such prefixes were in use in Cumbric.
Niddrie: Scot., Edinburgh, Nudref c.1290, Nodref c.1336, cf.W. newydd dref
(new town), also Corn. noweth dref. RC. * now dref.
Noe: Db. A river-name, Noue c.1300, cf.W. nofio (to swim). RC. nofio (to
flow or to
float).
O
Ochiltree: Scot., Kyle and Galloway, Uchiltre c.1304, Uchiltrie c.1406,
cf.
W uchel tre (high village), also cf. Corn. ughel tre. RC. *uchel tre.
Ogilvie: Scot., Perthshire, cf.W. uchel fa (high place), also cf. Corn.
ughel va. RC. *uchel vy.
P
Panbridge: Scot., Forfarshire, Pannebride c 1261, cf.W. pant Brigid
(Briget's
valley). RC. * pan y Brigidd. NB. The G is a jod.
Panmure: Scot., Forfarshire, Pannemor c. 1261, cf.W. pant mawr (big
valley),
also cf. Corn. pans mur. RC. *pan y mowr.
Pant: Scot. (Stair Parish in Ayrshire), cf.W. pant (valley), cf. Corn.
pans.
RC. *pant.
Pant: Wst. a field-name in Kendell Ward, cf.W. pant. RC. *pant. NB.
Field-names indicate a late survival of Cumbric.
Pardovan: Scot. Linlithgowshire, Purduuyn c. 1282, Pardovin c. 1542, cf.
W.
par ddwfn (deep field), also Pardovingishill, Scot. Renfrewshire. RC. *par
ddwfn.
Parton: Scot. Cf.W. perth (a bush). RC. *perth.
Parwich: Db. Peuerwich c.966, cf.W. pefr wyg (bright farm or copse). RC.
*pefr wic.
Patterdale: Cu. Patrichesdale c. 1148. NB. Patrick's valley.
Peebles: Scot. Cf.W. pabell (a tent or pavillion). RC. *pabel.
Peffer: Scot. Cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr.
Pencaitland: Scot. Penketland c.1296, cf.W. pen coed llan (end of the
wood),
cf.Corn. pen cos lan. RC. *pen caidd lan.
Penhurrock: Wst. c.1777. NB. Currock and currick are local words for a
heap
of stones or a cairn. The currock in question is a stone circle on a
tumulus, grid 83-629104.
Pen Howe: Wst. a field-name in Kendall ward, a hybrid Cumbric-Norse
place-name, pen haugr.
Penistone: Scot. Selkirk, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend). RC. *pen
ystrum.
Penistone: Yorks. Peningeston c.1199, cf.W. pen yr ystrum.RC. *pen yn
ystrum.
Pennystone: Scot. Kirkmabrek, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend). RC.
*pen ystrum.
Penicuik: Scot. Edinburgh, cf.W. pen y coed, cf. Corn. pen an cok. RC.
*pen
y coc. NB. This place-name, together with Blencogo, determines that the
ultimate C in coc became G in the plural, hence sing. *coc pl. *cogow.
Penketh: Lancs. Penket c. 1242, Penketh c. 1259, cf.W. pen coed (wood end)
cf. Corn. pen cos, cf. Bret. Pen koad. RC. *pen caidd.
Penkridge: Staffs. Pencric c.958, cf.W. pen crug. RC. *pen cruc.
Penmanshiel: Scot. Berwickshire, a hybrid Cumbric and Norse place-name
containing Norse skali (a shelter), cf.W.pen maen. RC. *pen main
Pennigant: Scot. Roxburgh, cf.W. pen y gaint (end of the plain). RC.*pen y
gaint (end of the plateaux).
Penyghent: Yorks. Penegent c.1307. NB. Alternative pronunciations for the
diphthong AI.
Pennymure: Scot. Roxburgh, cf. W. pen y mur (end of the wall). RC. *pen y
mur.
Penersax: Scot. Dumfriesshire, cf.W. pen y sais (hill of the Saxon). RC.
*pen yr sacs.
Penpont: Scot. Dumfries, cf.W. pen pont (bridge end), cf. Penpons in
Cornwall. RC. *pen pont.
Penrith: Cu. Penred c. 1167, Penreth c. 1185, Penerith c.1367, cf.W. pen
rhyd (ford end), cf.Corn. pen res. RC. *pen rydd.
Pensax: Wor. Pensex c 1231 (Saxon hill).
Penty: Scot. Lanarkshire, cf.W. pendy (main house, i.e. manor house). NB.
No
lenition in penty.
Peover: Chs. Peuere c. 1277, cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr.
Pilling: Lancs. Pylin c.1246, cf.W. pyll (pool or creek). RC.* pylen
(diminutive, small pool or creek).
Plenmellior: Nb. Plenmenewre c.1256, Playnmelor c.1279, cf.W. blaen moel
vre
(summit of bald mountain). RC. *blain mail vre. NB. The initial sharp
mutation of B into P is unexplained.
Plenploth: Scot., cf.W. blaen y plwyf (parish front or before the parish).
RC. *blain plof
Poltragow: Cu. Poltraghaue c.1485, cf.W. pwll trachau (hills protruding
into
lowland). RC. *pol trachow.
Polmaise: Scot. Stirlingshire, cf.W. pwll maes (field pool). RC. *pol
mais.
Pontheugh: Scot. Berwickshire, Hugh's Bridge.
Preesall: Lancs. Preshoved, Preshoved c.1190. A Hybridf Cumbric and Norse
place-name meaning Brushwood Head, cf.W. prys (brushwood, fuel), cf.Corn
pres (meadow). RC, *prys.
Presmennan: Scot. East Lothian, Presmunet c. 1160, cf. W. prys mynedd R.C.
*prys monydd. NB. O before nasal plus stop remains unaltered.
Prenlas: Scot. Leslie Parish in Fife, cf.W. pren glas (green plank). NB.
The lenition in Prenlas. RC.* pren las. NB. Lenition.
Priorsdale: Cu. Presdale c.1280, cf.W. prys.
R
Raswraget: Cu. a lost place-name in Eskdale Ward, Roswrageth c.1169, cf.W.
rhos wragedd (woman moor). RC. * ros wragedd.
Redmain: Cu. Redeman c.1188, cf.W. Rhyd y Maen (ford of stone) in
Dolgelly.
RC. *ryd y main.
Roch: Lancs. River-name, Rachet c. 1292, cf.W. rheged (liberality,
largess,
bounty). Rheged, an ancient Romano-British and Christian kingdom in
England
during the Dark Ages. RC. * Regedd.
Rochdale: Lancs. Rachedal c.1195, Rachedham c.1193, (valley of the river
Roch.)
Roose: Yorks. Rossa c. 1135, also Roose in Derbyshire, Rosse c.1156, Roose
in Cheshire, Roose c.1336, also Roos and Rossal in Lancashire, cf.W. rhos
(moor, heath). RC. *ros.
Ruthven: Scot. Perthshire, cf.W. rhudd faen (red stone), cf.Corn. ruth
ven.
RC. rudd fain.
S
Seisdon: Staffs. Saiesdona c. 1130, Seisdon c.1243, Saxon's Down, cf.W,
sais
(Saxon), cf. Corn. saws (saxon). NB. Compare with Penersax and Glensax.
RC.
*sais.
Sherbourn-in-Elmet: Yorks. Silva Elmete c.730, Elmed saeta (Bede), Elmet
c.
800, Elmete c.1212, Elmeticos found on a tombestone in Carnarvan, cf.W.
Elvyd.
T
Talkin Fell: Cu. Talkenfell c.1589, cf. W.& Corn., tal (brow) and can
(white), Bret. Tal kan. RC. *tal can,
Tallentire: Cu. Tanentire c.1160, cf.W. tal y tir (end of the land), Corn.
tal an tyr. RC. *tal yn tir, NB. The definite article before dental.
Tarnmonath Fell: Cu. This is a hybrid Cumbric and Norse place-name, cf. W.
mynydd, (mountain) cf.Corn meneth. Tarn from tjorn. RC. *monydd. NB. This
place-name preserves the Cumbric word *monydd as monath. The vowels O and
U
before nasal plus stop did not in Cumbric, unlike the rest of the P-Celtic
languages, experience sound change. This in itself is sufficient to
establish Cumbric as a separate language in itself, and not just a dialect
of Welsh. Note also the ability of Cumbric to adopt load words such a
tjorn.
Tarn Wadling: Cu. Ternewathelan c. 1338, cf.W. Gwyddelan as in the
place-name Dol Wyddelan in Carnarvanshire. The word Gwyddel can mean
either
a pre-Celtic inhabitant or an Irishman. RC. *gwyddelan. In local legend
the
tarn or lake, which was filled in some time ago, was the lake from which
Arthur's sword came. RC. *tarn wyddelan.
Tarvin: Chs. Tervin c.1209, cf.W. terfyn (boundary), from Lat. terminus.
Teman: Cu. Tenman c.1346, Temayne c.1568, cf.W. tan maen (fire stone),
cf.Corn. ten men. RC. * tan main. NB. Teanen bonfires were lit at May Eve
and Halloween in the Pennines and elsewhere, and cattle were passed
through
two bonfires to cure murrain, tean is a dialect word for a bonfire.
Tercrosset: Cu. Torcrossoc c.1193, cf.W. croesog (abounding in crosses),
cf.
Corn. crowsek. RC. *tor crosoc. NB. The origin of the Cumbric word *tor,
which abounds expecially in Derbyshire and Cumbrian 12th century
place-names, is enigmatic. Place-name experts are of the opinion that 12th
century Cornish tin miners were brought into Derbyshire to mine lead and
bluestone, and into Cumbria to mine graphite for pencils, and they brought
the word tor, which is said to mean a tower, with them by naming cliffs
and
rocky prominences that look like towers tors, such as Mam Tor in
Derbyshire.
There is a Welsh word tor, which means a bulge, and it appears in Welsh
place-names such as Tor y Mynydd, but place-name experts discount any
Welsh
influence in favour of the theory wandering twelfth century Cornish tin
miners, for example it would be foolish to consider a Cumbric origin for
Mam
Tor such as *Main Tor y Monydd because Mam Tor is undoubtedly shaped like
the tower of a Cornish tin mine.
Terregles: Scot. Galloway, formerly Traveregles, cf. Corn. place-name
Treveglos (church town or a village containing the parish church). RC.
*tref
yr egles.
Torpenhow: Cu. Torpennoc c.1163, cf. W. penog (abounding in peaks). RC.
*torpenoc. NB. It is possible that the wandering Cornish tin miners, so
beloved by place-name experts, first wandered through Wales, then
Derbyshire, and finally to Cumberland, picking up a smattering of Welsh on
the way, such as the Welsh word penog, hence a Cornish and Welsh hybrid
place name *tor penog.
Trabroun: Scot., in Lauderdale, Treuerbrun c.1170, cf.W. tref y bryn
(village on the hill), also Trabroun in Haddington, Scotland. RC. *tref yr
bryn. NB.Definite article.
Trenant: Scot. Edinburgh, formerly Trevernent, cf.W. tref y neintydd (town
of the steep sided valley). RC. * tref yr neint. NB. Note the definite
article and the Cumbric plural of the word nant.
Traprain: Scot. Haddington, Trepren c.1335, cf.W. trefbren (plank
village).
It if possible that this settlement was composed of scalis, which consists
of planks covered in turves and fashioned in a circular pattern, the ends
of
the planks being fixed by a circle of stones, the original for Hobbit Hole
..RC. *tre pren NB. No lenition.
Treales: Chs. cf. W. tref y llys (village containing the court, which is
to
say the court of the local dengi or ruler and tax collector).
Trevercraig: Scot. Carrick, cf.W. tref y craig (village of stone), also
Trevercrageis: Ayrshire in Scotland. RC. * tref yr craic.
Triermain: Cu. Treverman c.1169, cf.W. tref y maen (village of stone). RC.
*tref yr main.
Troloss: Scot. Lanarkshire, cf.W. tre llwst (village tail), cf. Corn. tre
lost. RC. * tre lwst.
Trusty's Hill: Scot. This place-name refers to Tristan who was a local
chief, viz. the legend of Tristan and Isolde.
Tulketh: Lancs. cf.W. twll coed (cave or pit wood). RC. *twl caidd.
W
Warren Burn: Nb. Warnet c.1157, cf.W. gwernydd (alder trees, or a bog or
marsh). RC.*gwarnydd. NB. E before R plus stop becomes A.
Watermellock: Cu. Wethermelok c.1253, cf.W. gwydr moelog (green or blue
baldness, i.e. a heath). RC. *gwydr mailoc.
Werneth Low: Chs. Wernyth c.1352, cf,W, gwernydd (alder trees).
RC.*gwernydd.
Wharf: Yorks. A river-name, Verbeia, meaning a winding river, Weorf c.963,
Werf c.1112, Warf c. 1155, Hwef c.1155. RC. *gwerf & *gwarf. NB. The
pesent
name is from the Norse word hvarf, which means a bend. Note also how E
before R became A in the second spelling. This sound change is a feature
of
Cumbric.
Winister: Wst. Winster c.1170, cf.Gwensteri (white stream) in a verse by
Taliesin. RC. *gwyn ysteri.
Winwick: Lancs. Winequic c.1170, Wynewich c.1212, cf.W. gwyn wyg (white
village), cf.Corn. gwyn wyk. RC. gwyn wyc.
Y
Yeavering: Nb. Adgefrin (Bede), Yever c.1242, Yevre c.1329, also Yeavering
Bell, a nearby hill, cf. W geifr ryn (goat's hill), cf.Corn. gever bryn.
RC.
*geifr ryn. NB. G pronounced as a jod, as in Welsh.
Yanwath: near Penrith, cf.W. un (one, only, single). RC. *un wadd. (only
ford). NB. Gwadd is a loan word from Norse vadr meaning a ford.
Phonology
The next step is to create a Standard Reconstructed Cumbric, or S.R.C., by
examining the surviving written sources of Cumbric from place-names. This
task is made easier by the fact that there are remarkable similarities
between Cumbric and Welsh and Cornish, especially the variety of Cornish
known as Kernewek.This chapter is divided into three parts, the first
part
deals with Prythonic vowels and their development, the second part deals
with the respelling of Welsh vowels into Cumbric, and the third part
deals
with the respelling of Welsh consonants into Cumbric.
Vowels
Prythonic
short-A
Prythonic short-A remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
Cumbric.
Examples of Prythonic short-A can be found in many Cumbric place-names
Prythonic
long-A
Prythonic long-A changed into long-O or O-mega in proto-Welsh,
proto-Cornish, proto-Breton, and proto-Cumbric, but long-O subsequently
changed into the diphthong consisting of short OU in Welsh, Cornish, and
Breton, but because long-O is still a feature of North British speech it
has
been retained in S.R.C. Examples of long-O can be found in medieval
Cambok
and Kirkecambok.
Prythonic
short-E
Prythonic short-E remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, but
in
Cumbric short-E changed into short-A before the consonants L and R, as in
the place-names Leswalt, Warren Burn, Parton, and Tarvin. An intrusive
short-E also developed in Cumbric between the consonants stop plus L and
R.
This is particularly evident in the place-name Lotherdale, of which the
lother is derived from Latin latronis, cf. Cornish lader, meaning thief.
Short-E disappeared between L and R followed by a stop, for example
Cardurnock and the Welsh word durenog, the Cumbric element durn
corresponding to Welsh duren. Note also the Cumbric word galnas in Leges
Inter Brettos et Scottos, which corresponds to Welsh galanas.
Prythonic
long-E
Prythonic long-E became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and Cumbric,
for
example the Cumbric place-name Keer derived from Prythonic *ceros.
Prythonic
short-I
Prythonic short-I remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
Cumbric.
Prythonic
short-O
Prythonic short-O remained unchanged in Cumbric, but in Welsh, short-O
became short-U before a nasal and before a liquid plus stop, and short-I
in
pretonic syllables, for example the Welsh word mynydd appears with
short-O
in the place-name Tarnmonath
Prythonic long-O
Prythonic long-O became the diphthong short-OU in Welsh, Cornish,
Breton, and Cumbric, but because long-O persists in local dialect,
long-O perhaps remained unchanged in Cumbric.
Prythonic
short-U
Prythonic short-U generally remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and
Breton, but
there was a tendency for it to become short-O in Cumbric, as in Pardovan
and
Troloss. Short U became short I in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton before a
nasal plus stop, but remained unchanged in Cumbric.
..
Prythonic
long-U
Prythonic long U became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and Cumbric, but
place-name evidence indicate that this change was slow in Cumbric, but the
place-names Cardew and Dintsmere indicate this sound change.
Prythonic
long-W
Prythonic long-W remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
Cumbric,
as in the Cumbric place-names Polmaise and Poltragon.
Diphthongs
AE
The Welsh diphthong AE becomes either short-E in Cumbric, as in Blencarn,
Blencathra, Blencogo, Blencow, Blennerhasset, Menstrie, Mellor, Melrose,
Plenmellior, and Plenploth, or short-A as in Caraverick, Cardurnock,
Cardew,
Cardunneth Pike, Carleton, Carnetly, Carrick, Carrock Fell, Carwinley,
Castel Carrock, and Mam Tor.
AI
The Welsh diphthong AI becomes either short A in Cumbric, as in Pennigant,
or Short-E as in Penyghent.
AW
The Welsh diphthong AW becomes the short-diphthong OU in the place-name
Lanercost.
EI
The Welsh diphthong EI becomes AI in the Cumbric place-name Lanrekaythrin,
but as short-E in the medieval spelling of the Cumbric place-name Carnetly
(Carn Thelaue).
EU
The Welsh diphthong EU appears as AW and OW in medieval spellings of the
Cumbric place-name Carwinley (Carwyndelawae, Karwendelowe).
EW
The Welsh diphthong EW appears as long-U and the diphthong short-OU in the
medieval spellings of Niddrie (Nodref, Nudref).
IW
The Welsh diphthong IW remains as IW in the place-name Cumrew. The Welsh
diphthongs EO, IO, and Yw appear as EW in cognate Cornish words, and so
presumable would appear as IW in Cumbric.
OE
The Welsh diphthong OE becomes short-E in the place-names Culcheth,
Hesketh,
Mellor, Melrose, Plenmellior, and Tulketh, but as long-I in the
place-names
Cheetham and Kieth, and the diphthong EI in Culgaith.
OI,
OU
The Welsh diphthongs OI and OU are very rare in Welsh and no Cumbric
equivalents have survived.
WA
The Welsh diphthong WA remains unchanged in the medieval Cumbric
place-name
Wastpatrick Wath.
WY
The Welsh diphthong WY appears as both WI and the diphthong short-OU in
the
medieval spelling of the river-name Goyt (Got and Gwith).
UA
The Welsh diphthong UA in buarth appears as short-I in the Cumbric
place-names Birdoswald and Burtholm.
UO
The Welsh diphthong UO appears as the triphthong short-IVO in the
place-names Devoke Water and Cumdivock, cf. W. duog, dark, hence *cwm
divoc
for cwm duog.
Consonants
B
Welsh B remains unchanged in Cumbric place-names such as Blencogo. Etc.
C
Welsh Remains unchanged in Reconstructed Cumbric.
Ch
Welsh ch appears unaltered in Eccle Fechan, and so remains unchanged.
D
Initial Welsh D remains unchanged, but elsewhere Welsh D appears as DD or
voiced-th in Culcheth, Culgaith, Penketh, Tulketh, Lothersdale,
andWethermellock. This represent a sound change in original Cumbric.
Initial Welsh D remains unchanged in Reconstructed Cumbric but becomes
DD
elsewhere.
DD
Welsh DD remains unchanged in Roswrageth, *rhos wragydd, and so remains
unchanged in reconstructed Cumbric.
.
TH
Welsh TH or unvoiced-th remains unchanged in Lanrekaythin, and so remains
unchanged in reconstructed Cumbric.
F
Welsh F remains unchanged in Eccle Fechan, Carfrae, Macefen, and remains
unchanged in Reconstrcuted Cumbric despite being spelt as V elsewhere.
There
was what seems to be a sound change in Late Cumbric from F into FF as in
Lindifferon, and Peffer.
FF
Welsh FF remains unchanged within Reconstrcuted Cumbric.
G
Welsh G becomes C in Cumbric place-names with a few exceptions, for
example
Penicuik, which in Welsh is pen y cog, has to be compared with Blencogo.
In
Cumbric cuckoo was coc in the singulart but cogow in the plural, hence
*pen
y coc for Penicuik, and *blen y cogow for Blencogo.
GW
Welsh GW remains unchanged in Din Gouary, the old name for Bamborough. It
alsoappears as WH in Couwhencatte, and H in hestada, a North British and
Manx tax recorded in the Doomsday Book, and which corresponded to the
medieval Welsh tax called gwestfa. Welsh GW remains unchanged in
Reconstructed Cumbric.
LL
Welsh LL appears to have disappeared in Cumbric, and appears as L in
Landican, Lanercost, Linlithgow, Liscard, etc., yet despite this LL is
spelt
LH in Cumbric despite being pronounced as L.
Cumbric Grammar
Contents
Gender of Nouns
Plural of Nouns
The Definite Article
The Indefinite Article
The Genitive
Mutations
Soft Mutation
Aspirate Mutation
Sharp Mutation
Personal Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Pronoun Objects
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Adjectives
The Adverbial Particle
Relative Pronouns
Inflected Prepositional Pronouns
Syntax of Adjectives
Syntax of Pronouns
The Equative
The Comparative
The Superlative
Adjectives of Comparison and Superlativity
Declension of Adjectives
Adjectival Suffixes
Abstract Nouns
Adjectival Nouns
Numerals
Ordinal Numbers
The Syntax of the Cumbric Verb
The Present-Future Tense
The Past Continuous
The Preterite Tense
The Pluperfect Tense
The Subjunctive Tense
The Imperative
The Passive Tense
The Present Tense of the Verb To Be
The Present Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
The Verb To Be With Reference to Time and Place
The Verb To Be After the Interrogative Who
The Verb To Be Used as an Auxiliary in the Present Continuous tense
The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
The Verb To Be as an Auxiliary in the Imperfect Tense
The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Be
The Past Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
The Future Tense of the Verb To Be
The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Be
The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Be
Other Pluperfect Tenses
The Conditional Tense of the Verb To Be
The Interrogative
The Negative Particle
The Negative Relative Pronoun
The Affirmative and Negative responses
Irregular Verbs
The Infinitive of the Verb To Go
The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Go
The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Go
The Perfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Go
The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
The Verb To Do
The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Do
The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Do
The Verb To Come
The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Come
The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Come
Other Irregular Verbs Declined Like the Verb To Be
Verbs That Are Irregular in the Third Person Singular
Prepositional Idioms
The Gerund of the Verb
Reported Speech
Adverbial Clauses
The Verb To Have
The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Have
The Perfect Tense of the Verb To Have
The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Have
The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Have
Requests and the Verb To Have
Prefixes
Suffixes
Vowel Sandhi
Cumbric Grammar
1. The Gender of Nouns
Nouns and adjectives in modern P-Celtic languages are not declined. All
that
remains of the original Prythonic declensions is gender. There were
originally three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Nouns belonging
to the neuter gender passed into either the masculine or feminine genders
according to the similarity of neuter genders. In consequence a word may
be
feminine in Cornish and masculine in Welsh. The general rule in
Reconstructed Cumbric is to follow Welsh usage.
2. The Plurals of Nouns
Cumbric plurals are formed in three ways.
i. By the addition of plural suffixes. Two Cumbric plural suffixes have
survived. These are -ow as in Blencogo, which corresponds to Welsh -au,
and
ydd as in Werneth and Warren Burn (Warnet c.1157), which corresponds to
Welsh -ydd.
ii. By vowel mutation. An example of a plural formed by vowel mutation
exists in the place-name Tranent, earlier Trev er Nent, meaning the Villa
of
the Narrow Valleys, the Cumbric of which is *tref yr neint.
iii. By the existence of aggregate plurals from which singulars are
formed
by the addition of diminutive suffixes. A good example of this is
Ketton in Rutland, which means a tree. This in Cumbric is caithen, meaning
a
tree,from caith meaning a wood.
N.B., Some Welsh plurals are formed by vowel mutation and the addition of
plural suffixes. A good example of this is neintydd, the plural of nant,
which means a stream. It can be seen from the example of Trev er Nent that
the additional of plural suffixes after vowel mutations was dispensed with
in Cumbric.
3. The Definite Article
There are three Cumbric definite articles.
i. The definite article y as in Blencogo (Blen e Cogou c.1256), the
Cumbric of which is *blain y cogow.
ii. The definite article yr as in Tranent (earlier Trev er Nent), the
Cumbric of which is *tref yr neint, and Terregles (earler Trev er Egles),
the Cumbric of which is *tref yr egles.
iii. The definite article yn as in Liscard (Lhis en Cark c.1256), the
Cumbric of which is *lys yn cark, and Tallentire, the Cumbric of which is
*tal yn tir.
Although no grammatical rules governing the definite article can be found
it
is to be presumed that grammatical rules would have been invented if Old
Cumbric had become a written language. The present grammatical rules
therefore apply.
Welsh Cornish Breton
Cumbric
Y before consonants
Y before consonants
YR before vowels and H AR before
YR
before vowels
consonants
and H
AN in all cases AN before
YN before dentals
vowels
and T, D
T,
D, H
AL
before L
4. The Indefinite Article
No indefinite article exists in Welsh, but Breton has three indefinite
articles, UR, UN, and UL, which are governed by the same rule that governs
the definite article. Cornish has a definite article that is occasionally
used to emphasise the noun. Cumbric follows Cornish because of the
Northcountry indefinite articles yan and yin, from Cumbric un.
5. The Genitive
i. Adjectival genitives are formed in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
Cumbric
by placing two indefinite nouns together, thus the Cumbric place-name
Blencarn means (The) Cairn's Summit. Whole genitive sentences can be
formed,
such as the Welsh sentence: Sail ty mab brenin Lloegr, meaning, 'The
foundation of the house of the son of the king of England,' the Cumbric of
which is *Sail ty map brenin Lhaigr.
ii. The definite article can be used in place of the English 'of ' to
form a genitive by being placed between two or more nouns, such as the
Welsh
sentence: Y sail y ty y mab y brenin y Lloegr, hence the Cumbric
place-name
Blencogo from *blain y cogow.
6. Mutations
Under certain circumstances the first consonants of Celtic words can
change.
This is called mutation. There is some evidence that Cumbric, in common
with
Cornish and Breton, possessed sharp mutation, which is absent in Welsh
Welsh
Cornish
Breton
Cumbric
Soft Mutation
C - G
C, K - G
K - G, C'h
C - G (Penyghent)
T - D
T - D
T - D
T- D (Landican)
P - B
P -B
P - B
P - B (Larbet)
G -silent
G - silent
G - C'h
G - silent (Prenlas)
Gw - W
Gw - W
Gw - W
Gw - W (Carwin)
B - F
B - V
B - V
B - F (Carfrae)
D- DD
D - DH
D - Z
D - DD
M - F
M - V
M - V
M - F (Ruthven)
Aspirate Mutation
C - CH
C, K - H, Wh
K - C'h
C - CH (Penhurrock)
T - TH
T- TH
T - Z
T - TH (Carnetly)
P - PH
P - F
P - F
P - F (Dalfibble)
Sharp Mutation
B - P
B - P
B - P (Plenmellior)
D - T
D - T
D - T
G - C,K
G - K
G - C
GW - QU
GW - KW
GW - QU (Cumquencath)
7. Soft Mutation in Cumbric
C - G
GW - W
T - D
B - F
P - B
D - DD
G - silent
M - F
In Welsh there are twenty-one grammatical rules governing soft mutation.
It
is obvious from place-name evidence that Cumbric deteriorate both in
vocabulary and grammar, so the general method is to accept a Welsh
lenition
if at least one example can be found in a Cumbric place-name, and to
accept
a Welsh lenition in the absence of a Cumbric place-name if at least in one
other example of the same lenition can be found in another P-Celtic
language. Some lenitions that appear only in Welsh can be accepted.
Rule 1
Feminine singular nouns undergo soft mutation after the definite article.
Example
Penyghent and Pennigant
Rule 2
Both masculine and feminine nouns adopt soft mutation after adjectives
such
as hen (old) and cul (narrow).
Example
Culgaith
Rule 3
Nouns adopt soft mutation after the prepositions am (at, about), ar
(upon),
at (towards), dros (over), drwy (through), dan (under), i (to), wrth
(with,
by), o (of), hyd (to, till), heb (without), gan (with).
Example
Yan-ar-bumpit, Shepherd's notation for sixteen.
Rule 4.
Nouns adopt lenition after the possessive pronouns thy and his in Welsh,
Cornish, Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also. (Welsh dy and ei, Cornish
dha and y, Breton da and e: Welsh 'th after a vowel, Cornish 'th after a
vowel, Breton 'az after a vowel.)
Rule 5
Nouns adopt lenition after two in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and Cumbric.
Example
Dotheck, Shepherd's notation for nineteen.
Rule 6
In Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in Cumbric also, two adopts lenition
after the definite article.
Rule 7
In Welsh and Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also, feminine nouns adopt
lenition after the numeral one. In Cornish masculine nouns adopt lenition
after one and the indefinite article.
Rule 8
Nouns in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also, adopt
lenition after the adjective what.
Rule 9
Two nouns or an adjective and a noun can be joined together in Cumbric to
form a single word.
Example
Ogilvie (*ochilfa or highplace), Mellor (*mailvre or baldhill).
Rule 10
Nouns and verbs adopt lenition after most prefixes in Welsh, Cornish,
Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also.
Example
Larbet, earlier lethberth (*leddberth semi-bush).
Rule 11
Adjectives in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in Cumbric also,
adopt lenition after feminine singular nouns.
Example
Ecclefechan (*ecles fechan, littlechurch), Drumburgh, earlier Dromboc
(*drum
bach, small ridge)
Rule 12
In medieval Welsh verbs after the pronoun e meaning it adopt lenition.
This
same rule applies in Cumbric despite the fact that this rule does not
occur
in any other P-Celtic language. This rule has been adopted from Welsh for
grammatical reasons.
Rule 13
Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in Cumbric also, adopt lenition
after
the interrogative particle A.
Rule 14
Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in Cumbric also, adopt lenition
after
the relative pronouns a and na.
Rule 15
Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in Cumbric also, adopt lenition
after
the conjunction when.
Rule 16
Verbs in Cornish and Breton adopt lenition after the negative particle,
but
in Welsh all verbs adopt lenition except verbs that begin with C, P, T.
Cumbric follows Welsh usage on the presumption that Cumbric is closer to
Welsh that to Cornish and Breton.
Rule 17
Welsh verbs adopt lenition after the infinite particle yn. It is presumed
that because of the ease with which the Cumbric poems of Taliesin and
Aneirin were translated into Welsh that the same rule applies in Cumbric.
8. Aspirate Mutation in Cumbric.
C
CH
P
F
T
TH
Rule 1
In Cornish and Breton words following the first singular possessive
pronouns
adopt aspirate mutation, but in Welsh they adopt nasal mutation. No
example
of nasal mutation exists in Cumbric but examples of aspirate foundation
exist in Cumbric place-names, therefore Cumbric follows Cornish and Breton
usage.
Rule 2
Words following the feminine third possessive pronoun singular adopt
aspirate mutation in Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in Cumbric also,
adopt
aspirate mutation.
Rule 3
Welsh and Cornish nouns and therefore Cumbric nouns also, adopt aspirate
mutation after the comparative particle NA, which is used with adjectives
of
comparison.
Rule 4
Welsh and Cornish words and therefore Cumbric words also, following three
adopt aspirate mutation. Welsh words following six, adopt aspirate
mutation
but there is no need to adopt this usage in Cumbric.
9. Sharp Mutation
B
P
D
T
G
C
GW
CW
Rule 1
Cornish and Breton words that follow if (mar, ma), and Cumbric words also,
adopt sharp mutation. Welsh words following if (mar) adopt lenition.
10. Personal Pronouns
English
Welsh
Cornish
Breton
Cumbric
I
fi, i
my, fy
me
mi, i
thou, thee
ti
ti, sy
te
ti
he, him
ef
ef
en
ef
she, her
hi
hy, y
hi
hi
we, us
ni
ny
ni
ni
you, ye
chwi
why
c'hwi
chwi
they, them
hwy
y
int
hwi
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