Thanks for you post, I do not have much time now but I will give your
article further attention later. Kernewek is the most readily version of
Cornish available and, in my opinion, should serve as an introduction to
other forms of Cornish. The medieval scribes who recorded ***bric
place-names seemed to have used two spellings, one of which was not
dissimilar to Nance's ***bric, and the Cornish mystery plays, and the
other
being similar to Welsh spelling. There seems to have been a rapid
deteriorisation of ***bric grammar and vocabulary before its sudden
demise
circa 12 th century. Cornish took a number of centuries to mature. I have
finished my notes on ***bric grammar. Reviving ***bric is really very easy
because there are three other surviving P-Celtic languages. Anyway I am
now
publi****ng the grammar of ***bric on the internet. Afterwards I will have
to
test ***bric by writing articles in ***bric. Eventually I hope to work out
an alternative Cornish spelling for ***bric so that people can use either
Welsh spelling or Cornish according to preference. You must remember that
I
was born as a member of a Celtic community, which consists of the people
of
the North-West of England, but our Celtic identity was heavily suppressed
in
the past, and so I am no Celtic scholar.
"Angof" <angof@[EMAIL PROTECTED]
> wrote in message
news:42ed3226$0$3495$ed2619ec@[EMAIL PROTECTED]
> Cornish has a few spelling systems currently in operation, which can be
> confusing when quoting cornish language, for instance you have the word
> 'you' in english and in cornish Ti, but in Kernewek Kemmyn it is Ty
>
> I/me - My
> You - Ty
> She - Hi
> He - Ev
> We - Ni
> You (plural) - Hwi
> They - I
>
> This is the short form of the verb to be - Bos
>
> this contrasts to the other forms of Cornish which are used as examples
in
> the post below.
>
> Also of note is that some change the position of the Hw to Wh. The
number
> 6 is either Hwegh (Kernewek Kemmyn) or Whegh (i believe is used in
> Kernewek Unys)
>
> Being a Kemmyn user, i am not sure of other systems currently, so do not
> take my word as gospel so to speak, this is my understanding.
>
>
> "Hawker" <flink@[EMAIL PROTECTED]
> wrote in message
> news:dcj9gp$re4$1@[EMAIL PROTECTED]
>> Camow Cwntaf yn Gwmbraic - First Steps in ***bric
>>
>>
>>
>> Introduction
>>
>>
>>
>> I must confess that most of this work has already been done by other,
and
>> I have just gathered the pieces together, for example I base this
>> translation of Shepherd's notation into ***bric upon Ted Relph's
version.
>> Ted is a member of the Lakeland Dialect Society. Un, dwy, tair, pedair,
>> pym, chwych, saith, wyth, deg, un ar ddec, dawddec, tair ar ddec,
pedair
>> ar ddec, pymthec, un ar bymthec, dwy ar bymthec, dawnou ar bymthec,
>> ugain. Most of the work has already been done for me, and my only
>> contribution is to discover small discrepancies, such as dec for deg,
un
>> ar ddhec for un ar ddeg, and so on. I cannot take credit for the
>> Reconstruction of ***bric alone; I could do nothing without the
research
>> of others.
>>
>>
>>
>> Although many ***bric words have survived in Scots and English
>> examples of written ***bric take precedence. Concerning the survival of
>> ***bric vocabulary, Mr. Whittaker in Volume Two, pages 233 to 329, in
his
>> History of Manchester, has provided a list of three thousand North
>> Country ***bric words that have entered the vocabulary of Standard
>> English. In addition Mr.Davies supplied in a paper that he contributed
to
>> The Transactions of the Philological Society in 1885 another long list
of
>> North Country ***bric words that have passed into Standard English. Mr.
>> Davies commented that many low, burlesque, and obscene words in the
>> Lanca****re dialect can be traced back to ***bric. Furthermore, Mr.
Garnet
>> in Volume One, page 171, of the Transaction of the Philological
Society,
>> also supplied a similar list of ***bric words. Proof of the late
survival
>> of ***bric as a spoken language in ***bria exists in the place-name
>> ***whinton, which contains the Norman personal name Quinton, and which
>> means Quinton's Valley. In addition the survival of ***bric
field-names
>> and the presence of three ***bric words in a medieval manuscript called
>> Leges Inter Brettos et Scottos lend further sup****t for the persistence
>> of ***bric. The so called Shepherd's enumeration, which in fact was
>> mainly used by knitters, must also be taken into account. ***bric arose
>> from Prythonic, which was the ancestor of all P Celtic languages.
>> Prythonic developed into Proto-Welsh, Proto-Breton, Proto-Cornish, and
>> Proto-***bric. Proto-***bric was widely spoken throughout Scotland,
>> Northern England, and in the North Midlands. It is possible that the
area
>> in which Proto-***bric was spoken even stretched much further south.
>> Place-name evidence reveals that ***bric shared features in common with
>> both Welsh and Cornish, and while in some ways ***bric was more
>> innovative than either Welsh or Cornish, certain features of ***bric
can
>> only be described as being archaic. Some place-names, such as Pennigant
>> in Scotland and Penyghent in England, have preserved elements of what
may
>> have been two dialects of ***bric, for example the morpheme -gant
>> and -ghent are derived from the ***bric word *caint, which means a
>> plateaux, and which was variously pronounced as *cant and *cent. Some
>> ***bric place-names, such as Larbet and Eccle Fechan, have even
preserved
>> elements of ***bric grammar. These grammatical elements indicate that
>> ***bric was, with a few exceptions, identical to Medieval Welsh. This
of
>> course opens up the possibility of reconstructing ***bric in much the
>> same was that Nance reconstructed Kernewek, and other scholars
>> reconstructed Cornoak. Kernewek is a reconstruction of medieval
Cornish,
>> whereas Cornoak is the reconstruction of Cornish as it would have been
>> spoken just before its demise. A similar division between reconstructed
>> early and reconstructed late ***bric can be by deriving early
>> reconstructed ***bric from place-names, and late reconstructed ***bric
>> from the surviving ***bric word in Scots and North Country dialect.
>> Although paucity of vocabulary is no obstacle to the reconstruction of
>> ***bric, for example Basic English contains a core vocabulary of no
more
>> that a thousand words; it is possible to borrow Welsh words, which
indeed
>> was done by Nance. In addition the edition of the Times newspaper of
the
>> 3rd. January 1991 carried a re****t that first appeared in Le Mond,
>> according to which Lukiann Kergoat, the head of Breton and Celtic
Studies
>> at the University of Rennes, and chairperson of a committee called
>> Kreizhenn ar Geriauin, intended to create twenty thousand new Breton
word
>> in order to bring Breton up to date by respelling Welsh words. Northern
>> England was guest to a large number of Danish and Norwegian settlers,
>> mostly farmers and traders. Place-names such as Blennerhasset in
***bria
>> indicate that Scandinavian words were absorbed into ***bric, thus
>> allowing the modern words of science and technology, such as
*telefision,
>> to be adopted in Reconstructed ***bric, thus following the example of
>> Basic English. In addition many Roman laws, taxes, policing, and modes
of
>> administration are recorded in the Doomsday Book as having survived in
>> Northern England. Archaeological evidence at Wharram Percy, and field
and
>> air surveys over the North York****re Moors, reveal continuity
throughout
>> the sub-Roman period without any evidence for the replacement of the
>> native Romano-British population by Anglo-Saxons. The im****tance of
this
>> lies in the fact that the abandoned settlements and villages in the
area,
>> which arose from the eviction of the population in order to create
>> grazing land for sheep, are veritable time capsules going back to the
>> Roman occupation of Britain. The smallness of numbers of Angles in the
>> North-East of England is indicated by the fact that once during a siege
>> the Anglian population retired to Bamborough Rock, which would indicate
>> that a small number of Angles ruled over a large population of Celtic
>> peasants. The fate of these Angles after the Danish settlement of
>> Northern England is uncertain, but it is unlikely that any of the
>> Anglo-Saxons survived, at best some might have continued as broken men,
>> and others would have departed. The reconstruction of ***bric will at
>> least restore a version of the ancient language not only of Northern
>> England, but also of Scotland. Northern England, which some authors
have
>> called Brigantia, lost its last vestige of autonomy when the Council of
>> the North, which sat at York, was abolished in 1640 AC.
>>
>>
>>
>> In the interests of promoting the use of Reconstructed ***bric,
copyright
>> is waived on condition that ***bric is described as a native language
of
>> Scotland and Brigantia. Please remember.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> List of Abbreviations
>>
>>
>>
>> Bret. Breton
>>
>> Chs. Che****re
>>
>> c. circa
>>
>> cf. confer
>>
>> Corn. Cornish (Kernewek)
>>
>> Cu. ***berland
>>
>> Db. Derby****re
>>
>> Dur. Durham
>>
>> Lancs. Lanca****re
>>
>> Lei. Leicester****re
>>
>> M.W. Medieval Welsh
>>
>> Nrth. Northumberland
>>
>> Notts, Notthingham****re
>>
>> R.C. Reconstructed ***bric
>>
>> Shr. Shrop****re
>>
>> Shrews. Shrewsbury
>>
>> Staffs. Stafford****re
>>
>> Wor. Worcester****re
>>
>> Wst. Westmorland
>>
>> W. Welsh
>>
>> Yorks. York****re
>>
>> ***bric Place-Names
>>
>>
>>
>> A
>>
>>
>>
>> Aberruthven: nr. Auchterrarder, Scot., cf. W. aber rudd faen, Corn.
aber
>> ruth ven, (red stone conflux), R.C. *aber rudd fain.
>>
>> Ashton-in-Makerfield: Lancs.., Ashton c.1225, cf. Ince-in-Makerfield;
>> cf.W. magwyr & Corn magor (wall or ancient ruin). R.C. *magwy, variant
>> *magor, see Eaglesfield.
>>
>> Aspatria: Cu., Aspatric c.1230, a Norse-***bric hybrid, this place-name
>> preserves a ***bric genitive.
>>
>>
>>
>> B
>>
>>
>>
>> Bannock Burn: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. banog bryn. R.C. *bannawk or
banoc
>> bryn
>>
>> Barpennald: Cu., cf.W. bar pen allt & Corn. bar pen als, (top of chief
>> cliff). R.C. *bar pen alth
>>
>> Barroc Fell: Cu., Barroc c.1295, cf. M.W. barawg, a spur. This
place-name
>> preserves a ***bric adjectival suffix.
>>
>> Barwick-in-Elmet: cf.W. *Barwyg-yn-Elved, bar (hilltop) and gwyg
>> (coppice).
>>
>> Bathgate: Scot., Bathchet, c.1160, Bathkethe c.1337, cf.W.baedd goed &
>> Corn. both gos, (boar's wood). R.C. * baith gaith. NB. the lenition in
>> the modern name; this is indicative of the persistence of ***bric in
the
>> area.
>>
>> Birdoswald: Cu., Borddoswald c.1200, cf.W. buarth, (cow fold of dairy);
>> cf. Burtholm. R.C. *burth
>>
>> Birkby: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, N. Breta Skogr, (Britton's Wood.); cf.
>> Briscow.
>>
>> Blawith: Cu., Blawit c.1276, cf., W. blaedd wydd & Corn. blydd with
(wolf
>> wood). R.C. *blaith with
>>
>> Blencarn: Cu., Blencarne c.1159, Blenecarn c.1210, Blencarn 1211, cf.
W.
>> blaen y carn, cf. Corn. blyn an carn, (top of the burial mound); R.C.
>> *blain carn, blain y carn
>>
>> Blencathra: Cu., Blenkarthure c. 1589, cf. W. blaen cader, (throne
>> summit); R.C. *blain cadder. The alternative name for this fell is
>> Saddleback.
>>
>> Blencogo: Cu., Blenecogou c.1292, cf. W. blaen y cogau & Corn. blyn an
>> cogas, (hill of cuckoos). R.C. *blain y cogow. This place name
preserves
>> a ***bric suffix.
>>
>> Blencow: Cu. Blenkhaw c.1254. A hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name, *blain
>> (haugr) meaning hill top.
>>
>> Blennerhesset: Cu. Blennerhaiseta c. 1188, a hybrid ***bric-Norse
>> place-name, *blain yr haisetr, meaning crest of the hay field. This
>> place-name establishes that the definite article y became yr before H.
>>
>> Blindcrake: Cu. Blenecrayc c.1268, cf. W. blaen y cr aig, (summit of
the
>> rock); R.C. *blain y craic.
>>
>> Brant Fell: Yorks. a hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name meaning steep
>> hill/mountain. The word brant, together with its variant brent, are
still
>> in use as a dialect word meaning steep. This is an example of the
>> survival of ***bric in dialect as well as in a place-name.
>>
>> Bredon: Lei. Briudun c.730, meaning either the summit of a down or a
>> fort.
>>
>> Breedon: Wor. Beodun c.722, as above.
>>
>> Briscow: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, see Birkby.
>>
>> Burtholm: Cu., Burtholm c.1256, a hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name
meaning
>> a dairy or cow fold on the spur of a hill. See. Birdoswald.
>>
>>
>>
>> C
>>
>>
>>
>> Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunplelder, cf.W. carn dinas (a mound
retreat).
>> A dinas was a tem****ary fortified retreat as distinct from caer, which
>> was a permanent stone-built stronghold such as a castle or farm-house,
>> also cf. Dinas Sitch Tor, Db. behind the S**** in on S**** Pass.
>>
>> Calder: Lancs., Kalder c.1200, cf. W. place-names Calettwr and Clettwr,
>> (hard water, i.e. fast flowing river), W. called dwr; R.C. *caleth
*dwr.
>> The word cal has acquired a new meaning in Welsh and Cornish, therefore
>> it is supposed the original was*Calthdwr.
>>
>> Cambeck: Nth. Camboc c.1169, Cambec c.1622, (a meandering stream).
>>
>> Camblesford: Yorks. Camelesford c.1311, cf.W. cam y lais, (bend on the
>> stream). R.C. *cam y lais.
>>
>> Camerton: Cu., Camerton c. 1150, cf.W. cymmer, (conflux), R.C. *cwmmer.
>>
>> Capledre: Scot. Lochere in Linlithgow, cf.W. ceffyl dre, (horse town)
>> R.C. *capel dre, cappel is a dialect word meaning a horse.
>>
>> Capplerigg: Cu., see Capledre above.
>>
>> Caraverick: Cu., Caraverick c.1150, the name of a lost settlement in
>> Leath Ward of ***berland. Caraverick c.1150, cf.W. caer efrog
(farmhouse
>> amid cowslips), R.D. *cair *afyric. NB. the intrusive y before R and
>> initial E changed to A.
>>
>> Carcowe: Wst. a field-name in West Ward of Westmorland. A hybrid
>> ***bric-Norse field-name, *Cair Haugr. The im****tance of a Celtic word
>> appearing in a field-name is that it indicates a late survival of
spoken
>> ***bric in West Ward.
>>
>> Cardew: Cu., Carthew c.1287, cf. W. caer ddu, (black farmhouse), R.C.
>> *cair *ddu.
>>
>> Cardrona: Traquair in Peebles, Scot., Cardronow c. 1500, cf.W. caer
>> dronau, (fort circle, i.e., of standing stones), R.C. *cair dronow.
This
>> place name contains the cambric plural -ow.
>>
>> Cardunneth Pike: Cu., Cardunnoke c.1386, cf.W. caer Dunod, (Donatus'
>> farmhouse), R.C. *cair Dunoth: see also Dintsmere, Chs., boundary of
>> Donatus, also see Dinting, Chs., Dintinge, c. 1226, place of Donatus,
>> Dinthill, Shrews., Dunthill c. 1200, hill of Dontatus, R.C. *Dunoth.,
>>
>> Cardurnock: Cu., Cardrunnoke, c. 1386, cf.W. caer *durenog (pebbly
>> farmhouse), c f. W. duren (pebble, steel, flint). NB. the disappearance
>> of E between consonant R and nasal N. R.C. *cair durnoc.
>>
>> Carfrae: Scot., Lauderdale in Berwick****re, cf.W. caer fre (hill fort).
>> NB. this place-name has preserved the lenition of B into V. R.V. *cair
>> fre
>>
>> Cark: Lancs. Karke c.1491, cf.W. careg (stone). NB. the disappearance
of
>> E between the consonants R and K. R.C. * carc.
>>
>> Carkin: Yorks. Karrecan c. 1200, Kercan, c. 1200, cf.W. careg can
(white
>> stone). See also Cargo, Cu. From Carec Haugr, hybrid Celtic-Norse
>> place-name meaning White Hill. NB. the disappearance of E after R and
>> before C. R.C. *carc can.
>>
>> Carnetly: Cu., Carnthelaue c.1230. (Burial Mound of Teilo.), cf.,
>> Llanteilo in Wales. NB. that this place-name appears to preserve an
>> aspirate mutation. R.C. * carn teilo.
>>
>> Carwath: Scot., Lanark****re, Karnewid c.1179, Carnewithe c.1315,
Carnwith
>> c. 1451, cf.W. carn y gwydd (durial mound of trees), cf. Corn. carn an
>> gwyth. R.C. *carn y gwydd.
>>
>> Carrick: Wst., cf. local dialect word currock and currick meaning a
cairn
>> or heap of stones, cf. Carrick in Scotland. The survival of ***bric
words
>> in Scots and North Country dialect serves as the basis of the argument
>> that ***bric never really died out.
>>
>> Carrock Fell: Cu., Carroc c. 1208, cf.W. carog (fenced, walled, or
>> fortified).R.C. *caroc.
>>
>> Carwinley: Cu., Carwyndelawe c. 1292, Karwendelowe c.1281, Carwyndelowe
>> c.1300, cf. W. caer Wenddoleu (Gwenddoleu's Castle). R.C. *cair
>> Wenddolaw.
>>
>> Castle Carrock: Cu., Castelcairoc x.1165, Castelcarroc c. 1212, cf. W.
>> castell caerog. R.C. *castel cairoc.
>>
>> Castel Hewin: Cu., Castelewyne c.1272, Castle Hewin c.1794, cf.W.
castell
>> Ewain (Owen's castle). This castle is legended to have been the castle
of
>> Eugenius Caesarius, a king of ***bria who expelled the Angles and
>> re-established British rule after the Saxons had been driven out. R.C.
>> *castel Ewain. RC. *cader lan.
>>
>> Catterlen: Cu., Caderlen c. 1165, cf. W. cader llan (hermitage throne).
>> Cader in this case is from the Greek word kathedra meaning a bishop's
>> throne. ***berland, as well as Elmet and Cornwall, were Christian
>> throughout the sub-Roman era, and were not reconverted to Christianity
by
>> Irish monks.
>>
>> Catterton: Yorks. Cadreton c.1230, a hybrid English and ***bric
>> place-name meaning fort enclosure. NB. This place-name preserves a
Saxon
>> word just as Blennerhasset has preserved a Norse word.
>>
>> Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunpelder, this could possible mean the burial
>> mound of Dionysius.
>>
>> Chadderton: Lancs. see Catterton.
>>
>> Cheadle: Chs. Chedle c.1153 (wood hill). A hybrid ***bric and English
>> place name.
>>
>> Cheetham: Lancs. Chetham c. 1226 (wood pasture) A hybrid ***bric and
>> English place name.
>>
>> Clesketts: Cu. Closchet c.1245, cf.W. clas coed (glebe wood), clas is
an
>> enclosed space, a green covering of grass, or glebe land. R.C. *clas
>> caidd.
>>
>> Comberbach: Chs. Comburbach c.1333 (stream of the Cwmbro), cf.W. cymro,
>> Corn. kembro, from Prythonic ***brogi meaning a compatriot. R.C. *
>> *cwmbro boc. NB. In ***bric W and O did not become Y before nasal plus
>> stop as in Welsh, Breton, and Cornish. This is a distinctive feature of
>> ***bric, one of several that indicate that ***bric was a separate
>> language even though similar to Welsh.
>>
>> Combermere: Chs. ***bremara c.1157, (compatriot wasteland). R.C.
*cwmbru
>> myr.
>>
>> Comberford: Staffs, this indicates that ***bric was once spoken in the
>> North Midlands, see also. Wor. Comberton, Lancs Comberhalgh.
>>
>> Condor: Lancs. Condovere c.1246, cf.W. cam dwfr (crooked waters). R.C.
>> *cam dwfr.
>>
>> Coulderton: Cu., Culdreton c.1180, cf.W. cul dir (narrow land). R.C.
*cul
>> dir. This is a very interesting place name because it acquired the
>> English word ton in the 12th.century, which would indicate that it was
>> about this time that Scots began to replace ***bric in ***berland,
which
>> was the last refuge of spoken ***bric.
>>
>> Couwhencatte: Cu., ***quencath c.1169. (Gwencad's valley). Gwencad is a
>> personal name that means White Battle. R.C. *cwm Cwencadd. NB. the
>> mutation of G into C.
>>
>> Culcheth: Lancs., Culchet c.1201, Kulcheth c.1246, cf. W. cul goed
>> (narrow wood), RC. *cul gaidd.
>>
>> Culgaith: Cu., Culchet c.1203, Culgayth c.1232, cf. W. cul goed (narrow
>> wood). Culgayth and Culgaith are verifications of the Reconstructed
>> ***bric *cul gaidd.
>>
>> ***cath: Cu., ***cache c.1292, cf.W. cwm cach (dung valley), RC. *cwm
>> cach.
>>
>> ***crook: Cu., ***cruk c.1295, cf.W. cwm crug (valley mound), RC. *cwm
>> cruc.
>>
>> ***divock: Cu., ***devoc c. 1244. Devoc's Valley, Prythonic personal
name
>> Dubacos meaning Dark or Swathy Man, cf.W. duog (dark), RC. *dufoc. NB.
>> the persistence of the intrusive F, which is absent in the Welsh
version
>> of this adjective.
>>
>> ***mersdale: Cu. ***bredal c.1227. A hybric ***bric and Norse place
name
>> meaning the Valley of the Cymru, cf. also ***berland: ***braland c.945,
>> cf. also ***berhill in Derby****re, ***berworth in York****re and
>> Lincoln****re, see also ***berbach cf. W. Cymru, RC. *Cwmbru. NB. The
>> persistence of stop B after nasal M, and the persistence of W before
>> nasal plus stop.
>>
>> RC. *Cwmbru
>>
>> ***rew: Cu., ***reu c.1200, ***rew c.1209, cf.W. cwm rhiw, (valley
>> slope). RC. *cwm riw.
>>
>> ***whinton: Cu., ***quinton c.1227. Quinton's Valley. Quinton is a
>> Norman-French personal name. This place-name is proof that ***bric was
>> spoken after William Duke of Normandy succeeded Edward the Confessor.
>>
>> Crakeplace Hall: Cu., Crakeplace c.1288, cf.W. craig plas (stone
manor).
>> RC. *craic plas.
>>
>> Crew: Chs. Cruwe c.1190, Cruue c.1288, cf.W. cryw (a ford or stepping
>> stones), cf. Crewgarth in ***berland,cf. W. cryw garth (ford farm)..RC.
>> *cryw garth
>>
>> Crich: Db., Cryc c.1009, cf.W. crug (a hill). RC. *cruc.
>>
>> Crickheath: Shr., Cruchet c.1272, cf.W. crug (a mound). RC. *cruc gaidd
>> (wood containing a burial mound).
>>
>> Crofton Bridge: Cu., formerly Waspatrickwath, meaning the Ford of
>> Patrick's Servant. Patrick was a local saint who attained fame in
>> Ireland, Gwaspatrick or Sevant of Patrick was a local fore-name.
>>
>> Cruckton: Shr. Crocton c.1272, Crokton c.1308, cf. W. crug (burial
>> mound), RC. *cruc.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> D
>>
>> Dacre: Cu., Dakre c.1292, cf. W. deigre (a tear drop). Dacre refers to
a
>> nearby stream, cf. Dacre in York****re. NB. that the Welsh diphthong EI,
>> pronounced as I, eye, and aye in English is pronounced as short A in
>> ***bric. RC. *daicre.
>>
>> Dacre Beck: Cu., Dakerbek c.1323, RC. *daicre boc (tear stream).
>>
>> Dalkieth: Scot., Dolchet c.1144, Dalkethe c.1337, cf.W. dal coed
(meadow
>> wood). RC.* dal caidd.
>>
>> Dalfibble: Scot., Dumfries, cf.W. dal pebyll (spread tent), RC.*dal
>> febyl. NB. the mutation of P into F in this ***bric place-name.
>>
>> Dane: Chs. Dauuen c.1220, Daan c.1416, cf.W. dafn (a drip), cf. also
>> Daven****t in Che****re meaning 'Drip Paved Road'. RC.*dafn.
>>
>> Desoglin: Cu., Dassoglen c.1596. Oglen is related to the Welsh ogl
>> meaning full of motion or life, in Welsh das means a heap. This place
>> name could be construed to mean a heap of a certain substance that is
>> full of certain living beings, but it probably refers to nearby marshy
>> ground. RC. *das oglyn.
>>
>> Devoke: Duvokeswater c. 1205, Duffockiswatir c.1280, the place-name
means
>> Dubacos' Lake, water referring to a lake or loch.
>>
>> Dinthill: Shrews. Duntull c.1299, (Donatus' hill), cf. Dintsmere: Chs.
>> Donatus' boundary mark, also Dinting: Chs. Duntinge c.1226,
>> (Donatus'place),
>>
>> Dinwiddie: Scot. Roxburgh, Dunwedy c.1504, cf. Dunwoody in Dumfries,
cf.
>> W. gwyddfa (woody place, a Bardic seat), and cf. Gwyddfa (Snowdon).
NB.,
>> Dinwiddie and Dunwoody would be suitable places to hold a Scottish
>> Eisteddfod.
>>
>> Dollerline: Cu., Dallerline c.1598, cf.W. dol ar lefniad (loop on the
>> smoothness). RC. *dol ar lefni. This place name refers to an ox-bow.
>>
>> Douglas: Lancs., cf.W. glais (a stream), see also Diggles in
Lanca****re,
>> both meaning black stream. RC. *du glais, NB. that the adjective
precedes
>> the noun. Douglas is also the surname of a well known Lanca****re
family,
>> and is also used as a forename.
>>
>> Dove Dale: Db. Duuendale c.1296, cf. River Dove in Derby****re, Dufan
>> c.951, Duue c. 1228, cf. also Dove Holes in Derby****re. RC. *dufyn,
>> diminutive of *duf meaning dark.
>>
>> Dover Beck: Notts. Doverbec c.1227, cf.W. dwfr (waters). RC. *dwfr boc
>> (stream of waters).
>>
>> Dunreggit: Scot., Fort of Rheged, see Rochdale. Rheged was a British
>> kingdom that included S.E. Scotland and N.W. England. RC. *dwn regedd.
>>
>> Dreva: Scot., Tweed. Cf.W. y dre fa (the village place). RC. *y dre fa.
>> NB. the lenition.
>>
>> Drumburgh: Cu., Drumboc c.1225. Old Welsh drwm bach (small ridge). RC.
>> *drwm bach.
>>
>> E
>>
>>
>>
>> Eccles: Lancs. Eccles c.1200, cf. Yorks Ecclesall, Eccleshale c.1205,
cf.
>> Ecclesfield, Ecclesfeld c.1109, Eccle****ll, and Lancs. Eccleston,
>> Ecclestine c. 1190, Great & Little Eccleston, Ecleston c.1285, and Db
>> Eccles Pike, Ecclesbourne, and Staff. Eccleshall, and Drh.
Egglescliffe,
>> and Cu. Eglesfield, Eglesfeld c.1290, and Scot. Ecclefechan, cf. W.
>> eglwys & Corn. Eglos, NB. the archaicism of these place-names in that
the
>> final vowel remained unchanged. RC. *egles.
>>
>> Eddleston: Scot. Formerly Pentiacob, Jacob's penthouse. RC. *pent Iacob
>>
>> Eglesbreth: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. eglwys braith. R.C. egles braith
>>
>> Etherow: Chs. Ederhou c.1221, Ederou c.1285, Edderowe c.1290, cf. W.
edd
>> (glide), and haw (sluggish). RC. *edd yr how.
>>
>> Ewanrigg: Co. Evenrigg c.1295, Ouenrig c.1332, Owain's Ridge. RC.
*Owain
>>
>>
>>
>> G
>>
>>
>>
>> Gawswoth: Chs. Gouseworth c. 1276, cf.W. gof (a smith). RC. *gof
>>
>> Gilcrux: Cu. Killecruce c. 1175, cf.W. cil y crug (retreat by the
>> hillock). Rc. *cil y cruc.
>>
>> Glasgow: Scot. Glasgu c.1136, cf.W. glas gau (green hollow). RC. *glas
>> gow.
>>
>> Glencoyn: Cu.Glencaine c.1212 Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291, cf.W.
>> glyn cawn (valley of reed). RC. *glyn cown
>>
>> Glencoyne: Wst. Glencaine c.1212, Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291,
>> Glenkwent c.1577, Glenkwen c.1622. NB. This and the above place-name
have
>> been influence by the imposition of the English Gaelic word cain,
meaning
>> beautiful. The elements of English Gaelic in place-names are too few to
>> attempt the reconstruction of English Gaelic.
>>
>> Glendermackin: Cu. Glenermakon c.1278, cf.W. glyn y magon (valley of
>> berries.) RC. *glyn y macon.
>>
>> Glenderterra: Cu. Glunduvar c.1247, Glenderterray c.1729, cf.W. glyn
dwfr
>> terion (valley of pure water.) RC. *glyn dwfr terion. NB. The 18thcent.
>> place-name has preserved *terion.
>>
>> Glenridding: Wst. Glenredyn c.1292, cf.O.W. glinn redin, W. glyn
rhedyn.
>>
>> Glensax: Scot. Peebles, and Gensaxon in Dumfries, cf.W. glyn sais
(Saxon
>> Valley.) RC. *glyn saix. NB. The ***bric archaism preserves the
>> penultimate C.
>>
>> Goyt: Chs. Recorded as both Gwith and Gote in the 14th cent., cf.W.
gwyth
>> (a narrow channel), Corn. goth & gwith. RC. *gwyth & goth. NB. The
Welsh
>> diphthong WY appears either as WI or O in ***bric and Cornish. The
>> pronunciation of long O as the diphthong OI was once a feature of the
>> local dialect.
>>
>> Govan: Scot. Mid Lothian, Guun c.1134, Guuan c. 1150, Govan c. 1275,
>> Gwuan c. 1275, cf. W. ban (point, hill, or crest). R.C. *gwovan also
>> *govan (a small hill or slight crest of land).
>>
>> Gragareth: The Three Men of Gragareth: Yorks, Whernside, a
topographical
>> feature. Could be reconstructed into Welsh as y tri mein y gorgaered,
>> meaning the three rocks (y tri mein) of the limit (gor) of the city
wall
>> (gaered). RC. *y tri mein y gor gairedd.
>>
>>
>>
>> H
>>
>>
>>
>> Hesketh: Lancs. Heschate c.1288, Heskayth c.1298, c.W. hais coed
(prickle
>> wood). RC. *hais caidd.
>>
>> Heskin: Lancs. Heskyn c.1257, cf. W. hesgen (sedge, rush). RC. *hescen.
>>
>> Hints: Staff. Hintes c.1199, also Hints, Shr. Hintes c. 1242, Hyntes
>> c.1292, cf.W. hynt (road, way, course). RC. *hynt
>>
>>
>>
>> I
>>
>>
>>
>> Ince: Chs. Ynes c.1100, also Ince in Makerfield, cf.W. ynys. RC. *ynys
>>
>> Inchkieth: Scot., cf.W. ynys coed (island wood). RC. *ynys caith.
>>
>>
>>
>> K
>>
>>
>>
>> Kent: Lancs. A river-name, also Kennet, cf.W.cynnwyd (primary element).
>> RC. *cynnwith, var. *cynnoth.
>>
>> Kenyon: Lancs. Kenien c.1212, cf.W. crug Enion (Enion's burial mound).
>> RC. *cruc Enion.
>>
>> Ketton: Rut. Ketene c.1174, Chetena c.1146, cf.W. coeden (a tree). RC.
>> *caidden
>>
>> Kieth: Scot. Mid Lothian, this has inspired the personal name Kieth,
>> which means a wood, cf. W. coed, Corn. cos, and Bret. Koaz.. R.C.
*caidd
>>
>> Kirkbrynnok: Cu. c.1339. A lost place-name, Kirkja Brynach, Brynach's
>> Church. Note the adoption of a Norse word yet Celtic grammar.
>>
>> Kirkcambeck: Cu. Camboc c.1177, Kirkecamboc c.1280. Church (kirkja) on
>> the crooked stream (camboc).
>>
>> Kirkley: Nth. Crikelawa c. 13th. Cent. A hybrid Celtic Saxon word
meaning
>> hill (cruc) hill (hlaw).
>>
>> L
>>
>>
>>
>> Lamplough: Cu. Lamplou c. 1150, cf.W. llan plwyf, (parish church), cf.
>> Corn. lan plov. RC. *lan plof.
>>
>> Lanark: Scot. Cf.W. llanerch (hay-field). RC. *lanarch. NB. The short E
>> before R plus stop has become short A.
>>
>> Landican: Cu. Landekan c. 1281, cf. Llandegfan in Anglesay, Tegfan's
>> Church. RC. *lan decfan. NB. Note the lenition.
>>
>> Lanercost: Cu. Lanercost c. 1271, cf.W. llanerch Awst, Augustus's
>> hay-field. RC. *lan Owst.
>>
>> Lanrekaythin: Cu. Lanrecaithin c.1210. A lost place-name, cf.W.
llanerch
>> eithin (meadow of furze). RC. *lanarch aithin.
>>
>> Larbet: Scot., Sterling****re, Lethberth c. 1196, cf.W. leddberth
>> (semi-bush). RC. *leddberth.
>>
>> Laver: Yorks. Lauer c. 1307, also. Laversdale in ***berland, Laverton
in
>> York****re, a river-name, cf.W. llafr (spreading) RC. * lafer.
>>
>> Leeds: Yorks. Loidis c.730 (Bede), Ledes c.1196, possible a river-name
>> meaning flowing.
>>
>> Leen: Notts. Liene c.1200, also Lyne in Northumberland, Lina c.1050,
>> cf.W. lliant (torent). RC. *lian. NB. Absence of final S.
>>
>> Leswalt: Scot. Galloway, cf.W. llys wellt (grassy court of manour
house).
>> RC. *lys walt. NB. Note the change of short E into short A before
liquid
>> plus stop. In Welsh gwallt means hair.
>>
>> Leven: Chs. A river-name, Levene c.12^0, also Leven in Lanca****re and
>> York****re, cf.W. llyfniad (smootness). RC. *lyfeni.
>>
>> Lickle: Lancs. River-name, Licul c.1140, cf.O.W. llig (gliding out or
>> through). RC. *licol (abounding in water courses)..
>>
>> Lindefferon: Scot. Fife, see Hint, cf.W. llyn dwr hynt (flowing water
>> course). RC.*lin dwr hynt.
>>
>> Lindow: Chs. cf.W. llyn ddu (black lake).
>>
>> Lindreth: Cu. cf.W. llyn ddrud (flow-rapid, i.e. a torrent). RC. *lin
>> ddrudd.
>>
>> Lingmell Crag: cf W. grug moel craig (heather-bald crag). RC. * ling
mail
>> craic.
>>
>> Linlithgow: Scot. Linlithcou c.1150, cf.W. llyn llaith cau (lake wet
>> hollow). RC. *lin laith cow.
>>
>> Liscard: Chs. Lisenecark c.1256, cf.W. llys y carreg (stone manour
>> house). RC. lis yn carrec. NB. The definite article yn.
>>
>> Liverpool: Lancs. Liverpul c.1194, Litherpol c.1222, cf. W. llifr pwl
>> (conflux pool) and litthr pwl (slip pool). This is a reference to a
small
>> pool that gave haven to fi****ng boats in medieval times, and which
later
>> served as a dock, but which has since been filled in. RC. *lifr pwl,
>> *lithr pwl.
>>
>> Lothersdale: Yorks. Loderesden c.1202, Lothereston c.1285, also
>> Lauderdale in Scotland, cf.W. lleidr (bandit), and cf. Corn lader (a
>> thief). RC. * cwm laiddr (bandit valley).
>>
>> Lyne: Cu. Luene c.1292. RC. *lefeni. See Leven above.
>>
>> Lyvennet: Wst. River-name Levenyd c.1292, Leveneth c.1292. This river
is
>> called Llwyfenyd in the Welsh translation of Taliesin's original
***bric
>> poem Urien of Rheged. RC. *lofenydd.
>>
>> Lizard: Shp. Lusgerde c.664, lisgarde c.1291, cf.W. llys garth (court
>> farm). RC. *lys garth.
>>
>>
>>
>> M
>>
>>
>>
>> Mabbin Hill: Wst. personal name Mabon.
>>
>> Macefen: Chs. Masefen c.1260, cf.W. maes y ffin (field at the
boundary).
>> RC. *mais y ffin.
>>
>> Maidencastle: Cu. formerly Carthonock c.1589, Thannock's Castle.
>>
>> Mallerstang: Wst. Malrestang c.1223, Malvestang c.1228, cf.W. moel fre
>> (bald mountain), and cf. Nor. stongr (staff). RC. *mail fre stang.
>>
>> Mamhead: Db. Mammeheved c.1242, cf.W. maen (a stone), cf.Manchester,
>> Mansfield, Mamesfeld c.1093, Mam Tor, etc. RC. *main. NB. This place
name
>> includes the Norse word for head.
>>
>> Manor: Scot., Peebles, Maner c.1323, cf.W. maenor (a district marked by
>> stones, or a manor house). RC. *mainor.
>>
>> Mary****t: Cu. formerly Aylnfoote c.1656. The river Ayln was called the
>> Alavna in Roman times. Ayln foot means the mouth of the Ayln; this is a
>> Celtic turn of phrase. Sir Humphrey Senhouse changed Aylnfoot into
>> Mary****t after his wife Mary.
>>
>> Maughonby: Cu. Merchamby c.1254. A ***bric-Norse hybrid place-name
>> meaning Mercion's farm, from Roman personal name Marcianus. NB. The
>> survival of Romano-British personal names would suggest the survival of
a
>> Romano-British population.
>>
>> Meckfen: Scot, Perth****re, Mekfen c. 1226, Mecven c.1443, cf.W. mign
maen
>> (bog stone). RC. *myc fain.
>>
>> Megget Water: Scot., Selkirk****re, also Meggeth, Cu., cf.W. mignydd (a
>> bog), also
>>
>> mignoedd (bogs). RC. * mygydd, pl. *mygaidd.
>>
>> Meigle: Scot., Perth****re, Migdele in The Legend of Saint Michael,
cf.W.
>> mign dol (bog meadow). RC. *mig dol.
>>
>> Melkinthorpe: Wst. Melcanetorp c.1150, cf. O.W. personal name Mailcun,
>> cf.O.Ir. Maelcian.
>>
>> Mellor: Lancs. Melver c.1246, also Mellor Db. Melner c.1330, cf.W.
moel
>> fre (bald hill). RC. *mail fre.
>>
>> Melrose: Scot., cf.W. moel rhos, also Corn. mol ros (bald heath). RC. *
>> mail ros.
>>
>> Menstrie: Scot. Clackmannen, Mestry c.1315, Menstry c.1392, cf.W. maes
y
>> tre, also Corn. mes an tre (village of the open plain). RC. *mais tre,
>> and *mais yn tre. NB. The spellings menstry suggest that the definite
>> article became yn before a dental.
>>
>> Methvan: Scot., Perth****re, Methven c.1211, cf.W. medd faen, also Corn.
>> meth ven (mead stone). RC. *medd fain.
>>
>> Migvie: Scot., Stratherrich, cf.W. mign fa (a boggy place). RC.* mig fy
>>
>> Morcambe Bay: Lancs. Cf. W. mor cam (crooked sea). NB. This is an
example
>> of a trap for the unwary. Morcambe Bay was suggested by in Whitaker's
The
>> History of Manchester 1771, as the sight of Ptolemy's Marikambe. There
is
>> a Marricambe Bay in ***berland whose origin is obscure. Pennines is
>> another such trap. The original name was Riggings, meaning the Ridges.
>> The name Pennines is an adaptation of the Appenines in Italy.
>>
>> Morphie: Scot., Kincardine, cf.W. mor fa (sea place). RC. * mor fy.
>>
>>
>>
>> N
>>
>>
>>
>> Newton Arlosh: Cu. Arlosk c.1185, cf.W. llosg (fire). RC. *arlosc (land
>> cleared by burning) NB. Arlosh contains the intensive prefix ar-
(over),
>> this indicates that such prefixes were in use in ***bric.
>>
>> Niddrie: Scot., Edinburgh, ****ref c.1290, Nodref c.1336, cf.W. newydd
>> dref (new town), also Corn. noweth dref. RC. * now dref.
>>
>> Noe: Db. A river-name, Noue c.1300, cf.W. nofio (to swim). RC. nofio
>> (to flow or to
>>
>> float).
>>
>> O
>>
>>
>>
>> Ochiltree: Scot., Kyle and Galloway, Uchiltre c.1304, Uchiltrie c.1406,
>> cf. W uchel tre (high village), also cf. Corn. ughel tre. RC. *uchel
tre.
>>
>> Ogilvie: Scot., Perth****re, cf.W. uchel fa (high place), also cf. Corn.
>> ughel va. RC. *uchel vy.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> P
>>
>>
>>
>> Panbridge: Scot., Forfar****re, Pannebride c 1261, cf.W. pant Brigid
>> (Briget's valley). RC. * pan y Brigidd. NB. The G is a jod.
>>
>> Panmure: Scot., Forfar****re, Pannemor c. 1261, cf.W. pant mawr (big
>> valley), also cf. Corn. pans mur. RC. *pan y mowr.
>>
>> Pant: Scot. (Stair Parish in Ayr****re), cf.W. pant (valley), cf. Corn.
>> pans. RC. *pant.
>>
>> Pant: Wst. a field-name in Kendell Ward, cf.W. pant. RC. *pant. NB.
>> Field-names indicate a late survival of ***bric.
>>
>> Pardovan: Scot. Linlithgow****re, Purduuyn c. 1282, Pardovin c. 1542,
cf.
>> W. par ddwfn (deep field), also Pardovingi****ll, Scot. Renfrew****re.
RC.
>> *par ddwfn.
>>
>> Parton: Scot. Cf.W. perth (a bush). RC. *perth.
>>
>> Parwich: Db. Peuerwich c.966, cf.W. pefr wyg (bright farm or copse).
RC.
>> *pefr wic.
>>
>> Patterdale: Cu. Patrichesdale c. 1148. NB. Patrick's valley.
>>
>> Peebles: Scot. Cf.W. pabell (a tent or pavillion). RC. *pabel.
>>
>> Peffer: Scot. Cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr.
>>
>> Pencaitland: Scot. Penketland c.1296, cf.W. pen coed llan (end of the
>> wood), cf.Corn. pen cos lan. RC. *pen caidd lan.
>>
>> Penhurrock: Wst. c.1777. NB. Currock and currick are local words for a
>> heap of stones or a cairn. The currock in question is a stone circle on
a
>> tumulus, grid 83-629104.
>>
>> Pen Howe: Wst. a field-name in Kendall ward, a hybrid ***bric-Norse
>> place-name, pen haugr.
>>
>> *****tone: Scot. Selkirk, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend). RC.
>> *pen ystrum.
>>
>> *****tone: Yorks. Peningeston c.1199, cf.W. pen yr ystrum.RC. *pen yn
>> ystrum.
>>
>> Pennystone: Scot. Kirkmabrek, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend).
RC.
>> *pen ystrum.
>>
>> Penicuik: Scot. Edinburgh, cf.W. pen y coed, cf. Corn. pen an cok. RC.
>> *pen y coc. NB. This place-name, together with Blencogo, determines
that
>> the ultimate C in coc became G in the plural, hence sing. *coc pl.
>> *cogow.
>>
>> Penketh: Lancs. Penket c. 1242, Penketh c. 1259, cf.W. pen coed (wood
>> end) cf. Corn. pen cos, cf. Bret. Pen koad. RC. *pen caidd.
>>
>> Penkridge: Staffs. Pencric c.958, cf.W. pen crug. RC. *pen cruc.
>>
>> Penman****el: Scot. Berwick****re, a hybrid ***bric and Norse place-name
>> containing Norse skali (a shelter), cf.W.pen maen. RC. *pen main
>>
>> Pennigant: Scot. Roxburgh, cf.W. pen y gaint (end of the plain).
RC.*pen
>> y gaint (end of the plateaux).
>>
>> Penyghent: Yorks. Penegent c.1307. NB. Alternative pronunciations for
the
>> diphthong AI.
>>
>> Pennymure: Scot. Roxburgh, cf. W. pen y mur (end of the wall). RC. *pen
y
>> mur.
>>
>> Penersax: Scot. Dumfries****re, cf.W. pen y sais (hill of the Saxon).
RC.
>> *pen yr sacs.
>>
>> Penpont: Scot. Dumfries, cf.W. pen pont (bridge end), cf. Penpons in
>> Cornwall. RC. *pen pont.
>>
>> Penrith: Cu. Penred c. 1167, Penreth c. 1185, Penerith c.1367, cf.W.
pen
>> rhyd (ford end), cf.Corn. pen res. RC. *pen rydd.
>>
>> Pensax: Wor. Pen*** c 1231 (Saxon hill).
>>
>> Penty: Scot. Lanark****re, cf.W. pendy (main house, i.e. manor house).
NB.
>> No lenition in penty.
>>
>> Peover: Chs. Peuere c. 1277, cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr.
>>
>> Pilling: Lancs. Pylin c.1246, cf.W. pyll (pool or creek). RC.* pylen
>> (diminutive, small pool or creek).
>>
>> Plenmellior: Nb. Plenmenewre c.1256, Playnmelor c.1279, cf.W. blaen
moel
>> vre (summit of bald mountain). RC. *blain mail vre. NB. The initial
sharp
>> mutation of B into P is unexplained.
>>
>> Plenploth: Scot., cf.W. blaen y plwyf (parish front or before the
>> parish). RC. *blain plof
>>
>> Poltragow: Cu. Poltraghaue c.1485, cf.W. pwll trachau (hills protruding
>> into lowland). RC. *pol trachow.
>>
>> Polmaise: Scot. Stirling****re, cf.W. pwll maes (field pool). RC. *pol
>> mais.
>>
>> Pontheugh: Scot. Berwick****re, Hugh's Bridge.
>>
>> Preesall: Lancs. Preshoved, Preshoved c.1190. A Hybridf ***bric and
Norse
>> place-name meaning Brushwood Head, cf.W. prys (brushwood, fuel),
cf.Corn
>> pres (meadow). RC, *prys.
>>
>> Presmennan: Scot. East Lothian, Presmunet c. 1160, cf. W. prys mynedd
>> R.C. *prys monydd. NB. O before nasal plus stop remains unaltered.
>>
>> Prenlas: Scot. Leslie Parish in Fife, cf.W. pren glas (green plank).
NB.
>> The lenition in Prenlas. RC.* pren las. NB. Lenition.
>>
>> Priorsdale: Cu. Presdale c.1280, cf.W. prys.
>>
>>
>>
>> R
>>
>> Raswraget: Cu. a lost place-name in Eskdale Ward, Roswrageth c.1169,
>> cf.W. rhos wragedd (woman moor). RC. * ros wragedd.
>>
>> Redmain: Cu. Redeman c.1188, cf.W. Rhyd y Maen (ford of stone) in
>> Dolgelly. RC. *ryd y main.
>>
>> Roch: Lancs. River-name, Rachet c. 1292, cf.W. rheged (liberality,
>> largess, bounty). Rheged, an ancient Romano-British and Christian
kingdom
>> in England during the Dark Ages. RC. * Regedd.
>>
>> Rochdale: Lancs. Rachedal c.1195, Rachedham c.1193, (valley of the
river
>> Roch.)
>>
>> Roose: Yorks. Rossa c. 1135, also Roose in Derby****re, Rosse c.1156,
>> Roose in Che****re, Roose c.1336, also Roos and Rossal in Lanca****re,
>> cf.W. rhos (moor, heath). RC. *ros.
>>
>> Ruthven: Scot. Perth****re, cf.W. rhudd faen (red stone), cf.Corn. ruth
>> ven. RC. rudd fain.
>>
>>
>>
>> S
>>
>> Seisdon: Staffs. Saiesdona c. 1130, Seisdon c.1243, Saxon's Down, cf.W,
>> sais (Saxon), cf. Corn. saws (saxon). NB. Compare with Penersax and
>> Glensax. RC. *sais.
>>
>> Sherbourn-in-Elmet: Yorks. Silva Elmete c.730, Elmed saeta (Bede),
Elmet
>> c. 800, Elmete c.1212, Elmeticos found on a tombestone in Carnarvan,
>> cf.W. Elvyd.
>>
>>
>>
>> T
>>
>> Talkin Fell: Cu. Talkenfell c.1589, cf. W.& Corn., tal (brow) and can
>> (white), Bret. Tal kan. RC. *tal can,
>>
>> Tallentire: Cu. Tanentire c.1160, cf.W. tal y tir (end of the land),
>> Corn. tal an tyr. RC. *tal yn tir, NB. The definite article before
>> dental.
>>
>> Tarnmonath Fell: Cu. This is a hybrid ***bric and Norse place-name, cf.
>> W. mynydd, (mountain) cf.Corn meneth. Tarn from tjorn. RC. *monydd.
NB.
>> This place-name preserves the ***bric word *monydd as monath. The
vowels
>> O and U before nasal plus stop did not in ***bric, unlike the rest of
the
>> P-Celtic languages, experience sound change. This in itself is
sufficient
>> to establish ***bric as a separate language in itself, and not just a
>> dialect of Welsh. Note also the ability of ***bric to adopt load words
>> such a tjorn.
>>
>> Tarn Wadling: Cu. Ternewathelan c. 1338, cf.W. Gwyddelan as in the
>> place-name Dol Wyddelan in Carnarvan****re. The word Gwyddel can mean
>> either a pre-Celtic inhabitant or an Irishman. RC. *gwyddelan. In local
>> legend the tarn or lake, which was filled in some time ago, was the
lake
>> from which Arthur's sword came. RC. *tarn wyddelan.
>>
>> Tarvin: Chs. Tervin c.1209, cf.W. terfyn (boundary), from Lat.
terminus.
>>
>> Teman: Cu. Tenman c.1346, Temayne c.1568, cf.W. tan maen (fire stone),
>> cf.Corn. ten men. RC. * tan main. NB. Teanen bonfires were lit at May
Eve
>> and Halloween in the Pennines and elsewhere, and cattle were passed
>> through two bonfires to cure murrain, tean is a dialect word for a
>> bonfire.
>>
>> Tercrosset: Cu. Torcrossoc c.1193, cf.W. croesog (abounding in
crosses),
>> cf. Corn. crowsek. RC. *tor crosoc. NB. The origin of the ***bric word
>> *tor, which abounds expecially in Derby****re and ***brian 12th century
>> place-names, is enigmatic. Place-name experts are of the opinion that
>> 12th century Cornish tin miners were brought into Derby****re to mine
lead
>> and bluestone, and into ***bria to mine graphite for pencils, and they
>> brought the word tor, which is said to mean a tower, with them by
naming
>> cliffs and rocky prominences that look like towers tors, such as Mam
Tor
>> in Derby****re. There is a Welsh word tor, which means a bulge, and it
>> appears in Welsh place-names such as Tor y Mynydd, but place-name
experts
>> discount any Welsh influence in favour of the theory wandering twelfth
>> century Cornish tin miners, for example it would be foolish to consider
a
>> ***bric origin for Mam Tor such as *Main Tor y Monydd because Mam Tor
is
>> undoubtedly shaped like the tower of a Cornish tin mine.
>>
>> Terregles: Scot. Galloway, formerly Traveregles, cf. Corn. place-name
>> Treveglos (church town or a village containing the parish church). RC.
>> *tref yr egles.
>>
>> Torpenhow: Cu. Torpennoc c.1163, cf. W. penog (abounding in peaks). RC.
>> *torpenoc. NB. It is possible that the wandering Cornish tin miners, so
>> beloved by place-name experts, first wandered through Wales, then
>> Derby****re, and finally to ***berland, picking up a smattering of Welsh
>> on the way, such as the Welsh word penog, hence a Cornish and Welsh
>> hybrid place name *tor penog.
>>
>> Trabroun: Scot., in Lauderdale, Treuerbrun c.1170, cf.W. tref y bryn
>> (village on the hill), also Trabroun in Haddington, Scotland. RC. *tref
>> yr bryn. NB.Definite article.
>>
>> Trenant: Scot. Edinburgh, formerly Trevernent, cf.W. tref y neintydd
>> (town of the steep sided valley). RC. * tref yr neint. NB. Note the
>> definite article and the ***bric plural of the word nant.
>>
>> Traprain: Scot. Haddington, Trepren c.1335, cf.W. trefbren (plank
>> village). It if possible that this settlement was composed of scalis,
>> which consists of planks covered in turves and fa****oned in a circular
>> pattern, the ends of the planks being fixed by a circle of stones, the
>> original for Hobbit Hole .RC. *tre pren NB. No lenition.
>>
>> Treales: Chs. cf. W. tref y llys (village containing the court, which
is
>> to say the court of the local dengi or ruler and tax collector).
>>
>> Trevercraig: Scot. Carrick, cf.W. tref y craig (village of stone), also
>> Trevercrageis: Ayr****re in Scotland. RC. * tref yr craic.
>>
>> Triermain: Cu. Treverman c.1169, cf.W. tref y maen (village of stone).
>> RC. *tref yr main.
>>
>> Troloss: Scot. Lanark****re, cf.W. tre llwst (village tail), cf. Corn.
tre
>> lost. RC. * tre lwst.
>>
>> Trusty's Hill: Scot. This place-name refers to Tristan who was a local
>> chief, viz. the legend of Tristan and Isolde.
>>
>> Tulketh: Lancs. cf.W. twll coed (cave or pit wood). RC. *twl caidd.
>>
>>
>>
>> W
>>
>>
>>
>> Warren Burn: Nb. Warnet c.1157, cf.W. gwernydd (alder trees, or a bog
or
>> marsh). RC.*gwarnydd. NB. E before R plus stop becomes A.
>>
>> Watermellock: Cu. Wethermelok c.1253, cf.W. gwydr moelog (green or blue
>> baldness, i.e. a heath). RC. *gwydr mailoc.
>>
>> Werneth Low: Chs. Wernyth c.1352, cf,W, gwernydd (alder trees).
>> RC.*gwernydd.
>>
>> Wharf: Yorks. A river-name, Verbeia, meaning a winding river, Weorf
>> c.963, Werf c.1112, Warf c. 1155, Hwef c.1155. RC. *gwerf & *gwarf. NB.
>> The pesent name is from the Norse word hvarf, which means a bend. Note
>> also how E before R became A in the second spelling. This sound change
is
>> a feature of ***bric.
>>
>> Winister: Wst. Winster c.1170, cf.Gwensteri (white stream) in a verse
by
>> Taliesin. RC. *gwyn ysteri.
>>
>> Winwick: Lancs. Winequic c.1170, Wynewich c.1212, cf.W. gwyn wyg (white
>> village), cf.Corn. gwyn wyk. RC. gwyn wyc.
>>
>>
>>
>> Y
>>
>> Yeavering: Nb. Adgefrin (Bede), Yever c.1242, Yevre c.1329, also
>> Yeavering Bell, a nearby hill, cf. W geifr ryn (goat's hill), cf.Corn.
>> gever bryn. RC. *geifr ryn. NB. G pronounced as a jod, as in Welsh.
>>
>> Yanwath: near Penrith, cf.W. un (one, only, single). RC. *un wadd.
(only
>> ford). NB. Gwadd is a loan word from Norse vadr meaning a ford.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> Phonology
>>
>>
>> The next step is to create a Standard Reconstructed ***bric, or S.R.C.,
>> by
>> examining the surviving written sources of ***bric from place-names.
This
>> task is made easier by the fact that there are remarkable similarities
>> between ***bric and Welsh and Cornish, especially the variety of
Cornish
>> known as Kernewek.This chapter is divided into three parts, the first
>> part
>> deals with Prythonic vowels and their development, the second part
deals
>> with the respelling of Welsh vowels into ***bric, and the third part
>> deals
>> with the respelling of Welsh consonants into ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>> Vowels
>>
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
>> short-A
>>
>>
>> Prythonic short-A remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
>> ***bric.
>> Examples of Prythonic short-A can be found in many ***bric place-names
>>
>> Prythonic
>> long-A
>>
>>
>> Prythonic long-A changed into long-O or O-mega in proto-Welsh,
>> proto-Cornish, proto-Breton, and proto-***bric, but long-O subsequently
>> changed into the diphthong consisting of short OU in Welsh, Cornish,
and
>> Breton, but because long-O is still a feature of North British speech
it
>> has
>> been retained in S.R.C. Examples of long-O can be found in medieval
>> Cambok and Kirkecambok.
>>
>> Prythonic
>> short-E
>>
>>
>> Prythonic short-E remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, but
>> in
>> ***bric short-E changed into short-A before the consonants L and R, as
in
>> the place-names Leswalt, Warren Burn, Parton, and Tarvin. An intrusive
>> short-E also developed in ***bric between the consonants stop plus L
and
>> R.
>> This is particularly evident in the place-name Lotherdale, of which the
>> lother is derived from Latin latronis, cf. Cornish lader, meaning
thief.
>> Short-E disappeared between L and R followed by a stop, for example
>> Cardurnock and the Welsh word durenog, the ***bric element durn
>> corresponding to Welsh duren. Note also the ***bric word galnas in
Leges
>> Inter Brettos et Scottos, which corresponds to Welsh galanas.
>>
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
>> long-E
>>
>>
>>
>> Prythonic long-E became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric,
>> for
>> example the ***bric place-name Keer derived from Prythonic *ceros.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
>> short-I
>>
>>
>> Prythonic short-I remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
>> ***bric.
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
>> short-O
>>
>>
>> Prythonic short-O remained unchanged in ***bric, but in Welsh, short-O
>> became short-U before a nasal and before a liquid plus stop, and
short-I
>> in
>> pretonic syllables, for example the Welsh word mynydd appears with
>> short-O
>> in the place-name Tarnmonath
>>
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
long-O
>>
>>
>> Prythonic long-O became the diphthong short-OU in Welsh, Cornish,
>> Breton, and ***bric, but because long-O persists in local dialect,
>> long-O perhaps remained unchanged in ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
>> short-U
>>
>>
>> Prythonic short-U generally remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and
>> Breton, but
>> there was a tendency for it to become short-O in ***bric, as in
Pardovan
>> and Troloss. Short U became short I in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton
before
>> a nasal plus stop, but remained unchanged in ***bric.
>>
>> .
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
>> long-U
>>
>>
>>
>> Prythonic long U became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric,
>> but
>> place-name evidence indicate that this change was slow in ***bric, but
>> the
>> place-names Cardew and Dintsmere indicate this sound change.
>>
>>
>> Prythonic
>> long-W
>>
>> Prythonic long-W remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
>> ***bric, as in the ***bric place-names Polmaise and Poltragon.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> Diphthongs
>>
>>
>>
>> AE
>>
>>
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong AE becomes either short-E in ***bric, as in
Blencarn,
>> Blencathra, Blencogo, Blencow, Blennerhasset, Menstrie, Mellor,
Melrose,
>> Plenmellior, and Plenploth, or short-A as in Caraverick, Cardurnock,
>> Cardew, Cardunneth Pike, Carleton, Carnetly, Carrick, Carrock Fell,
>> Carwinley, Castel Carrock, and Mam Tor.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> AI
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong AI becomes either short A in ***bric, as in
>> Pennigant, or Short-E as in Penyghent.
>>
>>
>>
>> AW
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong AW becomes the short-diphthong OU in the place-name
>> Lanercost.
>>
>>
>>
>> EI
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong EI becomes AI in the ***bric place-name
>> Lanrekaythrin, but as short-E in the medieval spelling of the ***bric
>> place-name Carnetly (Carn Thelaue).
>>
>>
>>
>> EU
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong EU appears as AW and OW in medieval spellings of
the
>> ***bric place-name Carwinley (Carwyndelawae, Karwendelowe).
>>
>>
>>
>> EW
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong EW appears as long-U and the diphthong short-OU in
>> the medieval spellings of Niddrie (Nodref, ****ref).
>>
>>
>>
>> IW
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong IW remains as IW in the place-name ***rew. The
Welsh
>> diphthongs EO, IO, and Yw appear as EW in cognate Cornish words, and so
>> presumable would appear as IW in ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>> OE
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong OE becomes short-E in the place-names Culcheth,
>> Hesketh, Mellor, Melrose, Plenmellior, and Tulketh, but as long-I in
the
>> place-names Cheetham and Kieth, and the diphthong EI in Culgaith.
>>
>>
>>
>> OI,
>> OU
>>
>> The Welsh diphthongs OI and OU are very rare in Welsh and no ***bric
>> equivalents have survived.
>>
>>
>>
>> WA
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong WA remains unchanged in the medieval ***bric
>> place-name Wastpatrick Wath.
>>
>>
>>
>> WY
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong WY appears as both WI and the diphthong short-OU in
>> the medieval spelling of the river-name Goyt (Got and Gwith).
>>
>>
>>
>> UA
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong UA in buarth appears as short-I in the ***bric
>> place-names Birdoswald and Burtholm.
>>
>>
>>
>> UO
>>
>> The Welsh diphthong UO appears as the triphthong short-IVO in the
>> place-names Devoke Water and ***divock, cf. W. duog, dark, hence *cwm
>> divoc for cwm duog.
>>
>>
>>
>> Consonants
>>
>>
>>
>> B
>>
>> Welsh B remains unchanged in ***bric place-names such as Blencogo. Etc.
>>
>>
>>
>> C
>>
>> Welsh Remains unchanged in Reconstructed ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>>
Ch
>>
>> Welsh ch appears unaltered in Eccle Fechan, and so remains unchanged.
>>
>>
>>
>> D
>>
>> Initial Welsh D remains unchanged, but elsewhere Welsh D appears as DD
or
>> voiced-th in Culcheth, Culgaith, Penketh, Tulketh, Lothersdale,
>> andWethermellock. This represent a sound change in original ***bric.
>> Initial Welsh D remains unchanged in Reconstructed ***bric but
becomes
>> DD elsewhere.
>>
>>
>>
>>
DD
>>
>> Welsh DD remains unchanged in Roswrageth, *rhos wragydd, and so remains
>> unchanged in reconstructed ***bric.
>>
>>
>> .
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> TH
>>
>> Welsh TH or unvoiced-th remains unchanged in Lanrekaythin, and so
remains
>> unchanged in reconstructed ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>>
F
>>
>> Welsh F remains unchanged in Eccle Fechan, Carfrae, Macefen, and
remains
>> unchanged in Reconstrcuted ***bric despite being spelt as V elsewhere.
>> There was what seems to be a sound change in Late ***bric from F into
FF
>> as in Lindifferon, and Peffer.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> FF
>>
>> Welsh FF remains unchanged within Reconstrcuted ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> G
>>
>> Welsh G becomes C in ***bric place-names with a few exceptions, for
>> example Penicuik, which in Welsh is pen y cog, has to be compared with
>> Blencogo. In ***bric cuckoo was coc in the singulart but cogow in the
>> plural, hence *pen y coc for Penicuik, and *blen y cogow for Blencogo.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> GW
>>
>> Welsh GW remains unchanged in Din Gouary, the old name for Bamborough.
It
>> alsoappears as WH in Couwhencatte, and H in hestada, a North British
and
>> Manx tax recorded in the Doomsday Book, and which corresponded to the
>> medieval Welsh tax called gwestfa. Welsh GW remains unchanged in
>> Reconstructed ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>>
LL
>>
>> Welsh LL appears to have disappeared in ***bric, and appears as L in
>> Landican, Lanercost, Linlithgow, Liscard, etc., yet despite this LL is
>> spelt LH in ***bric despite being pronounced as L.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> ***bric Grammar
>>
>>
>>
>> Contents
>>
>>
>>
>> Gender of Nouns
>>
>> Plural of Nouns
>>
>> The Definite Article
>>
>> The Indefinite Article
>>
>> The Genitive
>>
>> Mutations
>>
>> Soft Mutation
>>
>> Aspirate Mutation
>>
>> Sharp Mutation
>>
>> Personal Pronouns
>>
>> Possessive Pronouns
>>
>> Pronoun Objects
>>
>> Demonstrative Pronouns
>>
>> Demonstrative Adjectives
>>
>> The Adverbial Particle
>>
>> Relative Pronouns
>>
>> Inflected Prepositional Pronouns
>>
>> Syntax of Adjectives
>>
>> Syntax of Pronouns
>>
>> The Equative
>>
>> The Comparative
>>
>> The Superlative
>>
>> Adjectives of Comparison and Superlativity
>>
>> Declension of Adjectives
>>
>> Adjectival Suffixes
>>
>> Abstract Nouns
>>
>> Adjectival Nouns
>>
>> Numerals
>>
>> Ordinal Numbers
>>
>> The Syntax of the ***bric Verb
>>
>> The Present-Future Tense
>>
>> The Past Continuous
>>
>> The Preterite Tense
>>
>> The Pluperfect Tense
>>
>> The Subjunctive Tense
>>
>> The Imperative
>>
>> The Passive Tense
>>
>> The Present Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Present Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Verb To Be With Reference to Time and Place
>>
>> The Verb To Be After the Interrogative Who
>>
>> The Verb To Be Used as an Auxiliary in the Present Continuous tense
>>
>> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Verb To Be as an Auxiliary in the Imperfect Tense
>>
>> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Past Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Future Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Be
>>
>> Other Pluperfect Tenses
>>
>> The Conditional Tense of the Verb To Be
>>
>> The Interrogative
>>
>> The Negative Particle
>>
>> The Negative Relative Pronoun
>>
>> The Affirmative and Negative responses
>>
>> Irregular Verbs
>>
>> The Infinitive of the Verb To Go
>>
>> The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Go
>>
>> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Go
>>
>> The Perfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
>>
>> The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Go
>>
>> The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
>>
>> The Verb To Do
>>
>> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Do
>>
>> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Do
>>
>> The Verb To Come
>>
>> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Come
>>
>> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Come
>>
>> Other Irregular Verbs Declined Like the Verb To Be
>>
>> Verbs That Are Irregular in the Third Person Singular
>>
>> Prepositional Idioms
>>
>> The Gerund of the Verb
>>
>> Re****ted Speech
>>
>> Adverbial Clauses
>>
>> The Verb To Have
>>
>> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Have
>>
>> The Perfect Tense of the Verb To Have
>>
>> The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Have
>>
>> The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Have
>>
>> Requests and the Verb To Have
>>
>> Prefixes
>>
>> Suffixes
>>
>> Vowel Sandhi
>>
>>
>>
>> ***bric Grammar
>>
>>
>>
>> 1. The Gender of Nouns
>>
>> Nouns and adjectives in modern P-Celtic languages are not declined. All
>> that remains of the original Prythonic declensions is gender. There
were
>> originally three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Nouns
>> belonging to the neuter gender passed into either the masculine or
>> feminine genders according to the similarity of neuter genders. In
>> consequence a word may be feminine in Cornish and masculine in Welsh.
The
>> general rule in Reconstructed ***bric is to follow Welsh usage.
>>
>>
>>
>> 2. The Plurals of Nouns
>>
>> ***bric plurals are formed in three ways.
>>
>> i. By the addition of plural suffixes. Two ***bric plural suffixes
>> have survived. These are -ow as in Blencogo, which corresponds to
>> Welsh -au, and ydd as in Werneth and Warren Burn (Warnet c.1157), which
>> corresponds to Welsh -ydd.
>>
>> ii. By vowel mutation. An example of a plural formed by vowel
mutation
>> exists in the place-name Tranent, earlier Trev er Nent, meaning the
Villa
>> of the Narrow Valleys, the ***bric of which is *tref yr neint.
>>
>> iii. By the existence of aggregate plurals from which singulars are
>> formed by the addition of diminutive suffixes. A good example of
>> this is Ketton in Rutland, which means a tree. This in ***bric is
>> caithen, meaning a tree,from caith meaning a wood.
>>
>> N.B., Some Welsh plurals are formed by vowel mutation and the addition
of
>> plural suffixes. A good example of this is neintydd, the plural of
nant,
>> which means a stream. It can be seen from the example of Trev er Nent
>> that the additional of plural suffixes after vowel mutations was
>> dispensed with in ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>> 3. The Definite Article
>>
>> There are three ***bric definite articles.
>>
>> i. The definite article y as in Blencogo (Blen e Cogou c.1256), the
>> ***bric of which is *blain y cogow.
>>
>> ii. The definite article yr as in Tranent (earlier Trev er Nent), the
>> ***bric of which is *tref yr neint, and Terregles (earler Trev er
Egles),
>> the ***bric of which is *tref yr egles.
>>
>> iii. The definite article yn as in Liscard (Lhis en Cark c.1256), the
>> ***bric of which is *lys yn cark, and Tallentire, the ***bric of which
is
>> *tal yn tir.
>>
>> Although no grammatical rules governing the definite article can be
found
>> it is to be presumed that grammatical rules would have been invented if
>> Old ***bric had become a written language. The present grammatical
rules
>> therefore apply.
>>
>>
>>
>> Welsh Cornish Breton
>> ***bric
>>
>> Y before consonants Y before consonants
>>
>> YR before vowels and H AR before YR
>> before vowels
>>
>>
>> consonants and H
>>
>>
>>
>> AN in all cases AN
before
>> YN before dentals
>>
>>
>> vowels and T, D
>>
>>
>> T, D, H
>>
>>
>> AL before L
>>
>> 4. The Indefinite Article
>>
>> No indefinite article exists in Welsh, but Breton has three indefinite
>> articles, UR, UN, and UL, which are governed by the same rule that
>> governs the definite article. Cornish has a definite article that is
>> occasionally used to emphasise the noun. ***bric follows Cornish
because
>> of the Northcountry indefinite articles yan and yin, from ***bric un.
>>
>>
>>
>> 5. The Genitive
>>
>> i. Adjectival genitives are formed in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
>> ***bric by placing two indefinite nouns together, thus the ***bric
>> place-name Blencarn means (The) Cairn's Summit. Whole genitive
sentences
>> can be formed, such as the Welsh sentence: Sail ty mab brenin Lloegr,
>> meaning, 'The foundation of the house of the son of the king of
England,'
>> the ***bric of which is *Sail ty map brenin Lhaigr.
>>
>> ii. The definite article can be used in place of the English 'of '
to
>> form a genitive by being placed between two or more nouns, such as the
>> Welsh sentence: Y sail y ty y mab y brenin y Lloegr, hence the ***bric
>> place-name Blencogo from *blain y cogow.
>>
>>
>>
>> 6. Mutations
>>
>> Under certain cir***stances the first consonants of Celtic words can
>> change. This is called mutation. There is some evidence that ***bric,
in
>> common with Cornish and Breton, possessed sharp mutation, which is
absent
>> in Welsh
>>
>>
>>
>> Welsh
>> Cornish
>> Breton
>> ***bric
>>
>> Soft Mutation
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> C - G
>> C, K - G
>> K - G, C'h
>> C - G (Penyghent)
>>
>>
>>
>> T - D
>> T - D
>> T - D
>> T- D (Landican)
>>
>>
>>
>> P - B
>> P -B
>> P - B
>> P - B (Larbet)
>>
>>
>>
>> G -silent
>> G - silent
>> G - C'h
>>
>>
>> G - silent (Prenlas)
>>
>>
>>
>> Gw - W
>> Gw - W
>> Gw - W
>> Gw - W (Carwin)
>>
>>
>>
>> B - F
>> B - V
>> B - V
>> B - F (Carfrae)
>>
>>
>>
>> D- DD
>> D - DH
>> D - Z
>> D - DD
>>
>>
>>
>> M - F
>> M - V
>> M - V
>> M - F (Ruthven)
>>
>>
>>
>> Aspirate Mutation
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> C - CH
>> C, K - H, Wh
>> K - C'h
>> C - CH (Penhurrock)
>>
>>
>>
>> T - TH
>> T- TH
>> T - Z
>> T - TH (Carnetly)
>>
>>
>>
>> P - PH
>> P - F
>> P - F
>> P - F (Dalfibble)
>>
>>
>>
>> Sharp Mutation
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> B - P
>> B - P
>> B - P (Plenmellior)
>>
>>
>> D - T
>> D - T
>> D - T
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> G - C,K
>> G - K
>>
>>
>> G - C
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> GW - QU
>> GW - KW
>>
>>
>> GW - QU (***quencath)
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> 7. Soft Mutation in ***bric
>>
>>
>>
>> C - G
>> GW - W
>>
>>
>> T - D
>> B - F
>>
>>
>> P - B
>> D - DD
>>
>>
>> G - silent
>> M - F
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> In Welsh there are twenty-one grammatical rules governing soft
mutation.
>> It is obvious from place-name evidence that ***bric deteriorate both in
>> vocabulary and grammar, so the general method is to accept a Welsh
>> lenition if at least one example can be found in a ***bric place-name,
>> and to accept a Welsh lenition in the absence of a ***bric place-name
if
>> at least in one other example of the same lenition can be found in
>> another P-Celtic language. Some lenitions that appear only in Welsh can
>> be accepted.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 1
>>
>> Feminine singular nouns undergo soft mutation after the definite
article.
>>
>> Example
>>
>> Penyghent and Pennigant
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 2
>>
>> Both masculine and feminine nouns adopt soft mutation after adjectives
>> such as hen (old) and cul (narrow).
>>
>> Example
>>
>> Culgaith
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 3
>>
>> Nouns adopt soft mutation after the prepositions am (at, about), ar
>> (upon), at (towards), dros (over), drwy (through), dan (under), i (to),
>> wrth (with, by), o (of), hyd (to, till), heb (without), gan (with).
>>
>>
>>
>> Example
>>
>> Yan-ar-bumpit, Shepherd's notation for sixteen.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 4.
>>
>> Nouns adopt lenition after the possessive pronouns thy and his in
Welsh,
>> Cornish, Breton, and therefore in ***bric also. (Welsh dy and ei,
Cornish
>> dha and y, Breton da and e: Welsh 'th after a vowel, Cornish 'th after
a
>> vowel, Breton 'az after a vowel.)
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 5
>>
>> Nouns adopt lenition after two in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>> Example
>>
>> Dotheck, Shepherd's notation for nineteen.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 6
>>
>> In Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in ***bric also, two adopts
lenition
>> after the definite article.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 7
>>
>> In Welsh and Breton, and therefore in ***bric also, feminine nouns
adopt
>> lenition after the numeral one. In Cornish masculine nouns adopt
lenition
>> after one and the indefinite article.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 8
>>
>> Nouns in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in ***bric also,
adopt
>> lenition after the adjective what.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 9
>>
>> Two nouns or an adjective and a noun can be joined together in ***bric
to
>> form a single word.
>>
>> Example
>>
>> Ogilvie (*ochilfa or highplace), Mellor (*mailvre or baldhill).
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 10
>>
>> Nouns and verbs adopt lenition after most prefixes in Welsh, Cornish,
>> Breton, and therefore in ***bric also.
>>
>> Example
>>
>> Larbet, earlier lethberth (*leddberth semi-bush).
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 11
>>
>> Adjectives in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in ***bric
also,
>> adopt lenition after feminine singular nouns.
>>
>>
>>
>> Example
>>
>> Ecclefechan (*ecles fechan, littlechurch), Drumburgh, earlier Dromboc
>> (*drum bach, small ridge)
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 12
>>
>> In medieval Welsh verbs after the pronoun e meaning it adopt lenition.
>> This same rule applies in ***bric despite the fact that this rule does
>> not occur in any other P-Celtic language. This rule has been adopted
from
>> Welsh for grammatical reasons.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 13
>>
>> Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in ***bric also, adopt lenition
>> after the interrogative particle A.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 14
>>
>> Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in ***bric also, adopt lenition
>> after the relative pronouns a and na.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 15
>>
>> Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in ***bric also, adopt lenition
>> after the conjunction when.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 16
>>
>> Verbs in Cornish and Breton adopt lenition after the negative particle,
>> but in Welsh all verbs adopt lenition except verbs that begin with C,
P,
>> T. ***bric follows Welsh usage on the presumption that ***bric is
closer
>> to Welsh that to Cornish and Breton.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 17
>>
>> Welsh verbs adopt lenition after the infinite particle yn. It is
presumed
>> that because of the ease with which the ***bric poems of Taliesin and
>> Aneirin were translated into Welsh that the same rule applies in
***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> 8. Aspirate Mutation in ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>> C
>> CH
>>
>> P
>> F
>>
>> T
>> TH
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 1
>>
>> In Cornish and Breton words following the first singular possessive
>> pronouns adopt aspirate mutation, but in Welsh they adopt nasal
mutation.
>> No example of nasal mutation exists in ***bric but examples of aspirate
>> foundation exist in ***bric place-names, therefore ***bric follows
>> Cornish and Breton usage.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 2
>>
>> Words following the feminine third possessive pronoun singular adopt
>> aspirate mutation in Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in ***bric also,
>> adopt aspirate mutation.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 3
>>
>> Welsh and Cornish nouns and therefore ***bric nouns also, adopt
aspirate
>> mutation after the comparative particle NA, which is used with
adjectives
>> of comparison.
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 4
>>
>> Welsh and Cornish words and therefore ***bric words also, following
three
>> adopt aspirate mutation. Welsh words following six, adopt aspirate
>> mutation but there is no need to adopt this usage in ***bric.
>>
>>
>>
>> 9. Sharp Mutation
>>
>> B
>> P
>>
>> D
>> T
>>
>> G
>> C
>>
>> GW
>> CW
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>> Rule 1
>>
>> Cornish and Breton words that follow if (mar, ma), and ***bric words
>> also, adopt sharp mutation. Welsh words following if (mar) adopt
>> lenition.
>>
>>
>>
>> 10. Personal Pronouns
>>
>>
>>
>> English
>> Welsh
>> Cornish
>> Breton
>> ***bric
>>
>> I
>> fi, i
>> my, fy
>> me
>> mi, i
>>
>> thou, thee
>> ti
>> ti, sy
>> te
>> ti
>>
>> he, him
>> ef
>> ef
>> en
>> ef
>>
>> she, her
>> hi
>> hy, y
>> hi
>> hi
>>
>> we, us
>> ni
>> ny
>> ni
>> ni
>>
>> you, ye
>> chwi
>> why
>> c'hwi
>> chwi
>>
>> they, them
>> hwy
>> y
>> int
>> hwi
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>>
>
>
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