Either open the attachment or make a web template and cut and paste. This
is
the makings of a ***bric Grammar and Dictionary. I have not yet got round
to
it, but this draught will give you all the ground work necessary to make
your own ***bric grammar.
</br><!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC
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<HEAD>
<TITLE>FIRST STEPS IN ***BRIC</TITLE>
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<BODY bgcolor=lime text=black link=white vlink=coral alink=brown ><b><h2
align=center>CAMOW CWNTAF YN GWMBRAIC: First Steps in ***bric</h2></p>
(A note on copyright: No rights are reserved. Any part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, and transmitted, in any
form, and by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, and
otherwise,
without prior permission of the publisher.)
<p align=center>INTRODUCTION<p>
<p align=justify>***bric was once spoken throughout Scotland and Northern
England, and even in the North Midlands. The idea of reviving ***bric
arose
upon examining Basic English, which consists of a thousand simple English
words together with the international words of science and technology.
Basic
English proves that a limited vocabulary does not prevent a language from
being a means of communication. The same was said by Nance with regard to
his reconstruction of Kernewek, which is now an internationally accepted
language. Additional words can be borrowed from Welsh, which is what Nance
did, in order to expand the limited Cornish vocabularly available to him.
In
addition the edition of the Times newspaper of the 3rd. January 1991
carried
a re****t that first appeared in Le Mond, according to which Lukiann
Kergoat,
the head of Breton and Celtic Studies at the University of Rennes, and
chairperson of a committee called Kreizhenn ar Geriauin, intended to
create
twenty thousand new Breton word in order to bring Breton up to date by
respelling Welsh words.There is no difficulty in finding ***bric words. A
language that was spoken over such a wide area of Britain has obviously
not
disappeared without trace. Many ***bric words have survived in ***bric
place-names as well as in Scots and English. Concerning the survival of
***bric vocabulary, Mr. Whittaker in Volume Two, pages 233 to 329, in his
History of Manchester, has provided a list of three thousand North Country
***bric words that have entered the vocabulary of Standard English. In
addition Mr.Davies supplied in a paper that he contributed to The
transactions of the Philological Society in 1885 another long list of
North
Country ***bric words that have passed into Standard English. Mr. Davies
commented that many low, burlesque, and obscene words in the Lanca****re
dialect can be traced back to ***bric. Furthermore, Mr. Garnet in Volume
One, page 171, of the Transaction of the Philological Society, also
supplied
a similar list of ***bric words. Proof of the late survival of ***bric as
a
spoken language in ***bria exists in the place-name ***whinton, which
contains the Norman personal name Quinton, and which means Quinton's
Valley.
In addition the survival of ***bric field-names and the presence of three
***bric words in a medieval manuscript called Leges Inter Brettos et
Scottos
lend further sup****t for the persistence of ***bric. The so called
Shepherd's
enumeration, which in fact was mainly used by knitters, must also be taken
into account. Some ***bric place-names, such as Larbet and Eccle Fechan,
have even preserved elements of ***bric grammar. These grammatical
elements
indicate that ***bric was, with a few exceptions, identical to Medieval
Welsh. In reconstructing ***bric, there seems to be little difference
between ***bric and Welsh, but there is one im****tant difference, which
place-names such as Blennerhasset indicate, that ***bric speakers used
loan
words, whereas in Welsh this is not the case. Because of this ability of
***bric to accept loan words paucity of vocabulary is no obstacle to
***bric's reconstruction. It is hoped that ***bric enthusiasts will form a
committee to oversee the revival of ***bric, but this was not possible. It
should also be pointed out that many Roman laws, taxes, policing, and
modes
of administration are recorded in the Doomsday Book as having survived in
Northern England, and archaeological evidence at Wharram Percy, and field
and air surveys over the North York****re Moors, reveal continuity
throughout
the sub-Roman period without any evidence for the replacement of the
native
Romano-British population by Angles. The im****tance of this lies in the
fact
that the abandoned settlements and villages in the area, which arose from
the eviction of the population in order to create grazing land for sheep,
are veritable time capsules going back to the Roman occupation of Britain.
The smallness of numbers of Angles in the North-East of England is
indicated
by the fact that once during a siege the Anglian population retired to
Bamborough Rock, which would indicate that a small number of Angles ruled
over a large population of Celtic peasants. The fate of these Angles after
the Danish and Norwegian settlements of Northern England is likely that
the
Angles continued as broken men eking out a living on the edge of society,
and that others departed, in fact archeological evidence for this
supposition exists at the close of the Anglian era in the North-East in
the
form of graves of impoverished Angles.</p>
</p>
<p align=center>List of Abbreviations</p>
Bret. Breton Chs. Che****re c. circa cf. confer Corn. Cornish (Kernewek)
Cu.
***berland Db. Derby****re Dur. Durham Lancs. Lanca****re Lei.
Leicester****re
M.W.
Medieval Welsh Nrth. Northumberland Notts, Notthingham****re R.C.
Reconstructed
***bric Shr. Shrop****re Shrews. Shrewsbury Staffs. Stafford****re Wor.
Worcester****re Wst. Westmorland W. Welsh Yorks. York****re</p>
<p align=center>***bric Place-Names</p>
<p align=center>A</p>
<br>Aberruthven: nr. Auchterrarder, Scot., cf. W. aber rudd
faen, Corn. aber ruth ven, (red stone conflux), R.C. *aber rudd fain.
<br>Ashton-in-Makerfield: Lancs.., Ashton c.1225, cf. Ince-in-Makerfield;
cf.W.
magwyr & Corn magor (wall or ancient ruin). R.C. *magwy, variant *magor,
see
Eaglesfield.</tr></td>
<br>Aspatria: Cu., Aspatric c.1230, a Norse-***bric hybrid, this
place-name preserves a ***bric genitive. </td></tr>
<p align=center>B</p>
<br> Bannock Burn: Scot. Mid Lothian,
cf.W. banog bryn. R.C. *bannawk or banoc bryn
<br>Barpennald: Cu., cf.W. bar pen
allt & Corn. bar pen als, (top of chief cliff). R.C. *bar pen alth
<br>Barroc Fell:
Cu., Barroc c.1295, cf. M.W. barawg, a spur. This place-name preserves a
***bric
adjectival suffix.
<br>Barwick-in-Elmet: cf.W. *Barwyg-yn-Elved, bar (hilltop) and
gwyg (coppice).
<br>Bathgate: Scot., Bathchet, c.1160, Bathkethe c.1337, cf.W.baedd
goed & Corn. both gos, (boar's wood). R.C. * baith gaith. NB. the lenition
in
the modern name; this is indicative of the persistence of ***bric in the
area.
<br>Birdoswald: Cu., Borddoswald c.1200, cf.W. buarth, (cow fold of
dairy);
cf.
Burtholm. R.C. *burth
<br>Birkby: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, N. Breta Skogr, (Britton's
Wood.); cf. Briscow.
<br>Blawith: Cu., Blawit c.1276, cf., W. blaedd wydd & Corn.
blydd with (wolf wood). R.C. *blaith with Blencarn: Cu., <br>Blencarne
c.1159,
Blenecarn c.1210, Blencarn 1211, cf. W. blaen y carn, cf. Corn. blyn an
carn,
(top of the burial mound); R.C. *blain carn, blain y carn <br>Blencathra:
Cu.,
Blenkarthure c. 1589, cf. W. blaen cader, (throne summit); R.C. *blain
cadder.
The alternative name for this fell is Saddleback.
<br>Blencogo: Cu., Blenecogou c.1292, cf. W. blaen y cogau & Corn. blyn
an
cogas, (hill of cuckoos). R.C.
*blain y cogow. This place name preserves a ***bric suffix.
<br>Blencow: Cu. Blenkhaw c.1254. A hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name,
*blain
(haugr) meaning hill
top.
<br>Blennerhesset: Cu. Blennerhaiseta c. 1188, a hybrid ***bric-Norse
place-name, *blain yr haisetr, meaning crest of the hay field. This
place-name
establishes that the definite article y became yr before H.
<br>Blindcrake:
Cu.
Blenecrayc c.1268, cf. W. blaen y craig, (summit of the rock); R.C. *blain
y
craic. <br>Brant Fell: Yorks. a hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name meaning
steep
hill/mountain. The word brant, together with its variant brent, are still
in
use
as a dialect word meaning steep. This is an example of the survival of
***bric
in dialect as well as in a place-name. <br>Bredon: Lei. Briudun c.730,
meaning
either the summit of a down or a fort. Breedon: Wor. Beodun c.722, as
above.
<br>Briscow: Cu., Brethesco c.1203, see Birkby.
<br>Burtholm: Cu., Burtholm c.1256, a
hybrid ***bric-Norse place-name meaning a dairy or cow fold on the spur of
a
hill. See. Birdoswald.
BRYN Lancs. a hill
<p align=center>C</p>
<br>Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunplelder, cf.W. carn dinas
(a mound retreat). A dinas was a tem****ary fortified retreat as distinct
from
caer, which was a permanent stone-built stronghold such as a castle or
farm-house, also cf. Dinas Sitch Tor, Db. behind the S**** in on S****
Pass.
<br>Calder: Lancs., Kalder c.1200, cf. W. place-names Calettwr and
Clettwr,
(hard
water, i.e. fast flowing river), W. called dwr; R.C. *caleth *dwr. The
word
cal
has acquired a new meaning in Welsh and Cornish, therefore it is supposed
the
original was*Calthdwr.
<br>Cambeck: Nth. Camboc c.1169, Cambec c.1622, (a meandering
stream).
<br>Camblesford: Yorks. Camelesford c.1311, cf.W. cam y lais, (bend on the
stream). R.C. *cam y lais.
<br>Camerton: Cu., Camerton c. 1150, cf.W. cymmer,
(conflux), R.C. *cwmmer.
<br>Capledre: Scot. Lochere in Linlithgow, cf.W. ceffyl
dre, (horse town) R.C. *capel dre, cappel is a dialect word meaning a
horse.
<br>Capplerigg: Cu., see Capledre above.
<br>Caraverick: Cu., Caraverick c.1150, the
name of a lost settlement in Leath Ward of ***berland. Caraverick c.1150,
cf.W.
caer efrog (farmhouse amid cowslips), R.D. *cair *afyric. NB. the
intrusive
y
before R and initial E changed to A.
<br>Carcowe: Wst. a field-name in West Ward of
Westmorland. A hybrid ***bric-Norse field-name, *Cair Haugr. The
im****tance
of a
Celtic word appearing in a field-name is that it indicates a late survival
of
spoken ***bric in West Ward.
<br>Cardew: Cu., Carthew c.1287, cf. W. caer ddu,
(black farmhouse), R.C. *cair *ddu.
<br>Cardrona: Traquair in Peebles, Scot.,
Cardronow c. 1500, cf.W. caer dronau, (fort circle, i.e., of standing
stones),
R.C. *cair dronow. This place name contains the cambric plural -ow.
<br>Cardunneth
Pike: Cu., Cardunnoke c.1386, cf.W. caer Dunod, (Donatus' farmhouse), R.C.
*cair
Dunoth: see also Dintsmere, Chs., boundary of Donatus, also see Dinting,
Chs.,
Dintinge, c. 1226, place of Donatus, Dinthill, Shrews., Dunthill c. 1200,
hill
of Dontatus, R.C. *Dunoth., <br>Cardurnock: Cu., Cardrunnoke, c. 1386,
cf.W.
caer
*durenog (pebbly farmhouse), c f. W. duren (pebble, steel, flint). NB. the
disappearance of E between consonant R and nasal N. R.C. *cair durnoc.
<br>Carfrae:
Scot., Lauderdale in Berwick****re, cf.W. caer fre (hill fort). NB. this
place-name has preserved the lenition of B into V. R.V. *cair fre Cark:
Lancs.
Karke c.1491, cf.W. careg (stone). NB. the disappearance of E between the
consonants R and K. R.C. * carc. <br>Carkin: Yorks. Karrecan c. 1200,
Kercan, c.
1200, cf.W. careg can (white stone). See also Cargo, Cu. From Carec Haugr,
hybrid Celtic-Norse place-name meaning White Hill. NB. the disappearance
of
E
after R and before C. R.C. *carc can.
<br>Carnetly: Cu., Carnthelaue c.1230. (Burial
Mound of Teilo.), cf., Llanteilo in Wales. NB. that this place-name
appears
to
preserve an aspirate mutation. R.C. * carn teilo.
<br>Carwath: Scot., Lanark****re,
Karnewid c.1179, Carnewithe c.1315, Carnwith c. 1451, cf.W. carn y gwydd
(durial
mound of trees), cf. Corn. carn an gwyth. R.C. *carn y gwydd.
<br>Carrick: Wst., cf.
local dialect word currock and currick meaning a cairn or heap of stones,
cf.
Carrick in Scotland. The survival of ***bric words in Scots and North
Country
dialect serves as the basis of the argument that ***bric never really died
out.
<br>Carrock Fell: Cu., Carroc c. 1208, cf.W. carog (fenced, walled, or
fortified).R.C. *caroc. <br>Carwinley: Cu., Carwyndelawe c. 1292,
Karwendelowe
c.1281, Carwyndelowe c.1300, cf. W. caer Wenddoleu (Gwenddoleu's Castle).
R.C.
*cair Wenddolaw.
<br>Castle Carrock: Cu., Castelcairoc x.1165, Castelcarroc c. 1212,
cf. W. castell caerog. R.C. *castel cairoc.
<br> Castel Hewin: Cu., Castelewyne
c.1272, Castle Hewin c.1794, cf.W. castell Ewain (Owen's castle). This
castle is
legended to have been the castle of Eugenius Caesarius, a king of ***bria
who
expelled the Angles and re-established British rule after the Saxons had
been
driven out. R.C. *castel Ewain.
<br> Catterlen: Cu., Caderlen c.
1165, cf. W. cader llan (hermitage throne). Cader in this case is from the
Greek
word kathedra meaning a bishop's throne. ***berland, as well as Elmet and
Cornwall, were Christian throughout the sub-Roman era, and were not
reconverted
to Christianity by Irish monks.
<br>Catterton: Yorks. Cadreton c.1230, a hybrid
English and ***bric place-name meaning fort enclosure. NB. This place-name
preserves a Saxon word just as Blennerhasset has preserved a Norse word.
<br>Cairndinnis: Scot., near Dunpelder, the burial mound of
Dionysius. <br>Chadderton: Lancs. see Catterton. <br>Cheadle: Chs. Chedle
c.1153 (wood
hill). A hybrid ***bric and English place name. <br>Cheetham: Lancs.
Chetham
c. 1226
(wood pasture) A hybrid ***bric and English place name (ham=arable land).
<br>Clesketts: Cu. Closchet
c.1245, cf.W. clas coed (glebe wood), clas is an enclosed space, a green
covering of grass, or glebe land. R.C. *clas caidd.
<br>Comberbach: Chs. Comburbach
c.1333 (stream of the Cwmbro), cf.W. cymro, Corn. kembro, from Prythonic
***brogi meaning a compatriot. R.C. * *cwmbro boc. NB. In ***bric W and O
did
not become Y before nasal plus stop as in Welsh, Breton, and Cornish. This
is a
distinctive feature of ***bric, one of several that indicate that ***bric
was a
separate language even though similar to Welsh. <br>Combermere: Chs.
***bremara
c.1157, (compatriot wasteland). R.C. *cwmbru myr. <br>Comberford: Staffs,
this
indicates that ***bric was once spoken in the North Midlands, see also.
Wor.
Comberton, Lancs Comberhalgh. Condor: Lancs. <br>Condovere c.1246, cf.W.
cam
dwfr
(crooked waters). R.C. *cam dwfr. <br>Coulderton: Cu., Culdreton c.1180,
cf.W. cul
dir (narrow land). R.C. *cul dir. This is a very interesting place name
because
it acquired the English word ton in the 12th.century, which would indicate
that
it was about this time that Scots began to replace ***bric in ***berland,
which
was the last refuge of spoken ***bric. <br>Couwhencatte: Cu., ***quencath
c.1169.
(Gwencad's valley).
<br>Gwencad is a personal name that means White Battle. R.C.
*cwm Cwencadd. NB. the mutation of G into C. <br>Culcheth: Lancs., Culchet
c.1201,
Kulcheth c.1246, cf. W. cul goed (narrow wood), RC. *cul gaidd.
<br>Culgaith: Cu.,
Culchet c.1203, Culgayth c.1232, cf. W. cul goed (narrow wood). Culgayth
and
Culgaith are verifications of the Reconstructed ***bric *cul gaidd.
<br>***cath:
Cu., ***cache c.1292, cf.W. cwm cach (dung valley), RC. *cwm cach.
<br>***crook:
Cu., ***cruk c.1295, cf.W. cwm crug (valley mound), RC. *cwm cruc.
<br>***divock:
Cu., ***devoc c. 1244. Devoc's Valley, Prythonic personal name Dubacos
meaning
Dark or Swathy Man, cf.W. duog (dark), RC. *dufoc. NB. the persistence of
the
intrusive F, which is absent in the Welsh version of this adjective.
<br>***mersdale: Cu. ***bredal c.1227. A hybric ***bric and Norse place
name
meaning
the Valley of the Cymru, cf. also ***berland: ***braland c.945, cf. also
***berhill in Derby****re, ***berworth in York****re and Lincoln****re, see
also
***berbach cf. W. Cymru, RC. . NB. The persistence of stop B after nasal
M, and the persistence of W before nasal plus stop. <br> ***rew: Cu.,
***reu c.1200, ***rew c.1209, cf.W. cwm rhiw, (valley slope). RC. *cwm
riw.
<br>***whinton: Cu., ***quinton c.1227. Quinton's Valley. Quinton is a
Norman-French
personal name. This place-name is proof that ***bric was spoken after
William
Duke of Normandy succeeded Edward the Confessor. <br>Crakeplace Hall: Cu.,
Crakeplace c.1288, cf.W. craig plas (stone manor). RC. *craic plas.
<br>Crew: Chs.
Cruwe c.1190, Cruue c.1288, cf.W. cryw (a ford or stepping stones), cf.
<br>Crewgarth in ***berland,cf. W. cryw garth (ford farm)..RC. *cryw garth
<br>Crich:
Db., Cryc c.1009, cf.W. crug (a hill). RC. *cruc. <br>Crickheath: Shr.,
Cruchet
c.1272, cf.W. crug (a mound). RC. *cruc gaidd (wood containing a burial
mound).
<br>Crofton Bridge: Cu., formerly Waspatrickwath, meaning the Ford of
Patrick's
Servant. Patrick was a local saint who attained fame in Ireland,
Gwaspatrick
or
Sevant of Patrick was a local fore-name. <br>Cruckton: Shr. Crocton
c.1272,
Crokton
c.1308, cf. W. crug (burial mound), RC. *cruc.
<p align=center>D</p>
<br> Dacre: Cu., Dakre c.1292, cf.
W. deigre (a tear drop). Dacre refers to a nearby stream, cf. Dacre in
York****re. NB. that the Welsh diphthong EI, pronounced as I, eye, and aye
in
English is pronounced as short A in ***bric. RC. *daicre. <br>Dacre Beck:
Cu.,
Dakerbek c.1323, RC. *daicre boc (tear stream). <br>Dalkieth: Scot.,
Dolchet
c.1144,
Dalkethe c.1337, cf.W. dal coed (meadow wood). RC.* dal caidd.
<br>Dalfibble: Scot.,
Dumfries, cf.W. dal pebyll (spread tent), RC.*dal febyl. NB. the mutation
of
P
into F in this ***bric place-name. <br>Dane: Chs. Dauuen c.1220, Daan
c.1416, cf.W.
dafn (a drip), cf. also Daven****t in Che****re meaning 'Drip Paved Road'.
RC.*dafn.
<br>Desoglin: Cu., Dassoglen c.1596. Oglen is related to the Welsh ogl
meaning full of motion or life, in Welsh das means a heap. This place name
could
be construed to mean a heap of a certain substance that is full of certain
living beings, but it probably refers to nearby marshy ground. RC. *das
oglyn.
<br>Devoke: Duvokeswater c. 1205, Duffockiswatir c.1280, the place-name
means
Dubacos' Lake, water referring to a lake or loch. <br>Dinthill: Shrews.
Duntull
c.1299, (Donatus' hill), cf. Dintsmere: Chs. Donatus' boundary mark, also
Dinting: Chs. Duntinge c.1226, (Donatus'place), <br>Dinwiddie: Scot.
Roxburgh,
Dunwedy c.1504, cf. Dunwoody in Dumfries, cf. W. gwyddfa (woody place, a
Bardic
seat), and cf. Gwyddfa (Snowdon). NB., Dinwiddie and Dunwoody would be
suitable
places to hold a Scottish Eisteddfod.
<br>Dollerline: Cu., Dallerline c.1598, cf.W.
dol ar lefniad (loop on the smoothness). RC. *dol ar lefni. This place
name
refers to an ox-bow.
<br>Douglas: Lancs., cf.W. glais (a stream), see also Diggles
in Lanca****re, both meaning black stream. RC. *du glais, NB. that the
adjective
precedes the noun. Douglas is also the surname of a well known Lanca****re
family, and is also used as a forename.
<br>Dove Dale: Db. Duuendale c.1296, cf.
River Dove in Derby****re, Dufan c.951, Duue c. 1228, cf. also Dove Holes
in
Derby****re. RC. *dufyn, diminutive of *duf meaning dark. Dover Beck:
Notts.
Doverbec c.1227, cf.W. dwfr (waters). RC. *dwfr boc (stream of waters).
<br>Dunreggit: Scot., Fort of Rheged, see Rochdale. Rheged was a British
kingdom
that included S.E. Scotland and N.W. England. RC. *dwn regedd. Dreva:
Scot.,
Tweed. Cf.W. y dre fa (the village place). RC. *y dre fa. NB. the
lenition.
<br>Drumburgh: Cu., Drumboc c.1225. Old Welsh drwm bach (small ridge). RC.
*drwm
bach.
<p align=center>E</p>
<br> E Eccles: Lancs. Eccles c.1200, cf. Yorks Ecclesall, Eccleshale
c.1205,
cf. Ecclesfield, Ecclesfeld c.1109, Eccle****ll, and Lancs. Eccleston,
Ecclestine
c. 1190, Great & Little Eccleston, Ecleston c.1285, and Db Eccles Pike,
Ecclesbourne, and Staff. Eccleshall, and Drh. Egglescliffe, and Cu.
Eglesfield,
Eglesfeld c.1290, and Scot. Ecclefechan, cf. W. eglwys & Corn. Eglos, NB.
the
archaicism of these place-names in that the final vowel remained
unchanged.
RC.
*egles. <br>Eddleston: Scot. Formerly Pentiacob, Jacob's penthouse. RC.
*pent Iacob
<br>Eglesbreth: Scot. Mid Lothian, cf.W. eglwys braith. R.C. egles braith
<br>Etherow:
Chs. Ederhou c.1221, Ederou c.1285, Edderowe c.1290, cf. W. edd (glide),
and
haw
(sluggish). RC. *edd yr how. <br>Ewanrigg: Co. Evenrigg c.1295, Ouenrig
c.1332,
Owain's Ridge. RC. *Owain
<p align=center> G </p>
<br>Gawswoth: Chs. Gouseworth c. 1276, cf.W. gof (a
smith). RC. *gof <br>Gilcrux: Cu. Killecruce c. 1175, cf.W. cil y crug
(retreat by
the hillock). Rc. *cil y cruc. <br>Glasgow: Scot. Glasgu c.1136, cf.W.
glas
gau
(green hollow). RC. *glas gow. <br>Glencoyn: Cu.Glencaine c.1212 Glenekone
c.1255,
Glencon c.1291, cf.W. glyn cawn (valley of reed). RC. *glyn cown
Glencoyne:
Wst.
Glencaine c.1212, Glenekone c.1255, Glencon c.1291, Glenkwent c.1577,
Glenkwen
c.1622. NB. This and the above place-name have been influence by the
imposition
of the English Gaelic word cain, meaning beautiful. The elements of
English
Gaelic in place-names are too few to attempt the reconstruction of English
Gaelic. <br>Glendermackin: Cu. Glenermakon c.1278, cf.W. glyn y magon
(valley of
berries.) RC. *glyn y macon. Glenderterra: Cu. Glunduvar c.1247,
Glenderterray
c.1729, cf.W. glyn dwfr terion (valley of pure water.) RC. *glyn dwfr
terion.
NB. The 18thcent. place-name has preserved *terion. Glenridding: Wst.
Glenredyn
c.1292, cf.O.W. glinn redin, W. glyn rhedyn. Glensax: Scot. Peebles, and
Gensaxon in Dumfries, cf.W. glyn sais (Saxon Valley.) RC. *glyn saix. NB.
The
***bric archaism preserves the penultimate
<br>C. Goyt: Chs. Recorded as both Gwith
and Gote in the 14th cent., cf.W. gwyth (a narrow channel), Corn. goth &
gwith.
RC. *gwyth & goth. NB. The Welsh diphthong WY appears either as WI or O in
***bric and Cornish. The pronunciation of long O as the diphthong OI was
once a
feature of the local dialect.
<br>Govan: Scot. Mid Lothian, Guun c.1134, Guuan c.
1150, Govan c. 1275, Gwuan c. 1275, cf. W. ban (point, hill, or crest).
R.C.
*gwovan also *govan (a small hill or slight crest of land).
<br#>Gragareth:
The Three
Men of Gragareth: Yorks, Whernside, a topographical feature. Could be
reconstructed into Welsh as y tri mein y gorgaered, meaning the three
rocks
(y
tri mein) of the limit (gor) of the city wall (gaered). RC. *y tri mein y
gor
gairedd.
<p align=center>H</p>
<p align=justify> Hesketh: Lancs. Heschate c.1288, Heskayth c.1298, c.W.
hais coed
(prickle wood). RC. *hais caidd. Heskin: Lancs. Heskyn c.1257, cf. W.
hesgen
(sedge, rush). RC. *hescen.
<br>Hints: Staff. Hintes c.1199, also Hints, Shr. Hintes
c. 1242, Hyntes c.1292, cf.W. hynt (road, way, course). RC. *hynt
<p align=center>I</p>
<br>Ince: Chs.Ynes c.1100, also Ince in Makerfield, cf.W. ynys. RC. *ynys
<br>Inchkieth: Scot.,
cf.W. ynys coed (island wood). RC. *ynys caith.
<p align=center> K</p>
<br>Kent: Lancs. A river-name,
also Kennet, cf.W.cynnwyd (primary element). RC. *cynnwith, var. *cynnoth.
<br>Kenyon: Lancs. Kenien c.1212, cf.W. crug Enion (Enion's burial mound).
RC. *cruc
Enion.
<br> Ketton: Rut. Ketene c.1174, Chetena c.1146, cf.W. coeden (a tree).
RC.
*caidden
<br>Kieth: Scot. Mid Lothian, this has inspired the personal name Kieth,
which means a wood, cf. W. coed, Corn. cos, and Bret. Koaz.. R.C. *caidd
<br>Kirkbrynnok: Cu. c.1339. A lost place-name, Kirkja Brynach, Brynach's
Church.
Note the adoption of a Norse word yet Celtic grammar. <br>Kirkcambeck: Cu.
Camboc
c.1177, Kirkecamboc c.1280. Church (kirkja) on the crooked stream
(camboc).
<br>Kirkley: Nth. Crikelawa c. 13th. Cent. A hybrid Celtic Saxon word
meaning hill
(cruc) hill (hlaw).
<p align=center>L</p>
<br> Lamplough: Cu. Lamplou c. 1150, cf.W. llan plwyf, (parish
church), cf. Corn. lan plov. RC. *lan plof.
<br>Lanark: Scot. Cf.W. llanerch
(hay-field). RC. *lanarch. NB. The short E before R plus stop has become
short
A.
<br>Landican: Cu. Landekan c. 1281, cf. Llandegfan in Anglesay, Tegfan's
Church.
RC. *lan decfan. NB. Note the lenition.
<br> Lanercost: Cu. Lanercost c. 1271, cf.W.
llanerch Awst, Augustus's hay-field. RC. *lan Owst. <br>Lanrekaythin: Cu.
Lanrecaithin c.1210. A lost place-name, cf.W. llanerch eithin (meadow of
furze).
RC. *lanarch aithin.
<br>Larbet: Scot., Sterling****re, Lethberth c. 1196, cf.W.
leddberth (semi-bush). RC. *leddberth.
<br> Laver: Yorks. Lauer c. 1307, also.
Laversdale in ***berland, Laverton in York****re, a river-name, cf.W. llafr
(spreading) RC. * lafer.
<br>Leeds: Yorks. Loidis c.730 (Bede), Ledes c.1196,
possible a river-name meaning flowing. Leen: Notts. Liene c.1200, also
Lyne
in
Northumberland, Lina c.1050, cf.W. lliant (torent). RC. *lian. NB. Absence
of
final S.
<br> Leswalt: Scot. Galloway, cf.W. llys wellt (grassy court of manour
house). RC. *lys walt. NB. Note the change of short E into short A before
liquid
plus stop. In Welsh gwallt means hair. Leven: Chs. A river-name,
<br>Levene c.12^0,
also Leven in Lanca****re and York****re, cf.W. llyfniad (smootness). RC.
*lyfeni.
Lickle: Lancs. River-name, Licul c.1140, cf.O.W. llig (gliding out or
through).
RC. *licol (abounding in water courses).
<br> Lindefferon: Scot. Fife, see Hint,
cf.W. llyn dwr hynt (flowing water course). RC.*lin dwr hynt. <br>Lindow:
Chs. cf.W.
llyn ddu (black lake). Lindreth: Cu. cf.W. llyn ddrud (flow-rapid, i.e. a
torrent). RC. *lin ddrudd.
<br>Lingmell Crag: cf W. grug moel craig (heather-bald
crag). RC. * ling mail craic.
<br> Linlithgow: Scot. Linlithcou c.1150, cf.W. llyn
llaith cau (lake wet hollow). RC. *lin laith cow. Liscard: Chs.
<br>Lisenecark
c.1256, cf.W. llys y carreg (stone manour house). RC. lis yn carrec. NB.
The
definite article yn.
<br>Liverpool: Lancs. Liverpul c.1194, Litherpol c.1222, cf. W.
llifr pwl (conflux pool) and litthr pwl (slip pool). This is a reference
to
a
small pool that gave haven to fi****ng boats in medieval times, and which
later
served as a dock, but which has since been filled in. RC. *lifr pwl,
*lithr
pwl.
<br>Lothersdale: Yorks. Loderesden c.1202, Lothereston c.1285, also
Lauderdale in
Scotland, cf.W. lleidr (bandit), and cf. Corn lader (a thief). RC. * cwm
laiddr
(bandit valley).
<br> Lyne: Cu. Luene c.1292. RC. *lefeni. See Leven above. Lyvennet:
Wst. River-name Levenyd c.1292, Leveneth c.1292. This river is called
Llwyfenyd
in the Welsh translation of Taliesin's original ***bric poem Urien of
Rheged.
RC. *lofenydd.
<br> Lizard: Shp. Lusgerde c.664, lisgarde c.1291, cf.W. llys garth
(court farm). RC. *lys garth.
<p align=center> M </p>
<br>Mabbin Hill: Wst. personal name Mabon.
<br> Macefen:
Chs. Masefen c.1260, cf.W. maes y ffin (field at the boundary). RC. *mais
y
ffin.
<br>Maidencastle: Cu. formerly Carthonock c.1589, Thannock's Castle.
<br>Mallerstang: Wst. Malrestang c.1223, Malvestang c.1228, cf.W. moel fre
(bald
mountain), and cf. Nor. stongr (staff). RC. *mail fre stang. <br>Mamhead:
Db.
Mammeheved c.1242, cf.W. maen (a stone), cf.Manchester, Mansfield,
Mamesfeld
c.1093, Mam Tor, etc. RC. *main. NB. This place name includes the Norse
word
for
head.
<br>Manor: Scot., Peebles, Maner c.1323, cf.W. maenor (a district marked
by
stones, or a manor house). RC. *mainor.
<br> Mary****t: Cu. formerly Aylnfoote c.1656.
The river Ayln was called the Alavna in Roman times. Ayln foot means the
mouth
of the Ayln; this is a Celtic turn of phrase. Sir Humphrey Senhouse
changed
Aylnfoot into Mary****t after his wife Mary.
<br> Maughonby: Cu. Merchamby c.1254. A
***bric-Norse hybrid place-name meaning Mercion's farm, from Roman
personal
name
Marcianus. NB. The survival of Romano-British personal names would suggest
the
survival of a Romano-British population.
<br>Meckfen: Scot, Perth****re, Mekfen c.
1226, Mecven c.1443, cf.W. mign maen (bog stone). RC. *myc fain.
<br>Megget Water:
Scot., Selkirk****re, also Meggeth, Cu., cf.W. mignydd (a bog), also
mignoedd
(bogs). RC. * mygydd, pl. *mygaidd. Meigle: Scot., Perth****re, Migdele in
The
Legend of Saint Michael, cf.W. mign dol (bog meadow). RC. *mig dol.
<br>Melkinthorpe: Wst. Melcanetorp c.1150, cf. O.W. personal name Mailcun,
cf.O.Ir.
Maelcian.
<br> Mellor: Lancs. Melver c.1246, also Mellor Db. Melner c.1330, cf.W.
moel fre (bald hill). RC. *mail fre.
<br>Melrose: Scot., cf.W. moel rhos, also Corn.
mol ros (bald heath). RC. * mail ros.
<br>Menstrie: Scot. Clackmannen, Mestry
c.1315, Menstry c.1392, cf.W. maes y tre, also Corn. mes an tre (village
of
the
open plain). RC. *mais tre, and *mais yn tre. NB. The spellings menstry
suggest
that the definite article became yn before a dental.
<br> Methvan: Scot., Perth****re,
Methven c.1211, cf.W. medd faen, also Corn. meth ven (mead stone). RC.
*medd
fain.
<br> Migvie: Scot., Stratherrich, cf.W. mign fa (a boggy place). RC.* mig
fy
Morcambe Bay: Lancs. Cf. W. mor cam (crooked sea). NB. This is an example
of
a
trap for the unwary. Morcambe Bay was suggested by in Whitaker's The
History
of
Manchester 1771, as the sight of Ptolemy's Marikambe. There is a
Marricambe
Bay
in ***berland whose origin is obscure. Pennines is another such trap. The
original name was Riggings, meaning the Ridges. The name Pennines is an
adaptation of the Appenines in Italy.
<br>Morphie: Scot., Kincardine, cf.W. mor fa
(sea place). RC. * mor fy.
<p align=center> N</p>
<br> Newton Arlosh: Cu. Arlosk c.1185, cf.W. llosg
(fire). RC. *arlosc (land cleared by burning) NB. Arlosh contains the
intensive
prefix ar- (over), this indicates that such prefixes were in use in
***bric.
Niddrie: Scot., Edinburgh, ****ref c.1290, Nodref c.1336, cf.W. newydd dref
(new
town), also Corn. noweth dref. RC. * now dref. Noe: Db. A river-name, Noue
c.1300, cf.W. nofio (to swim). RC. nofio (to flow or to float).
<p align=center> O</p>
Ochiltree:
Scot., Kyle and Galloway, Uchiltre c.1304, Uchiltrie c.1406, cf. W uchel
tre
(high village), also cf. Corn. ughel tre. RC. *uchel tre. Ogilvie: Scot.,
Perth****re, cf.W. uchel fa (high place), also cf. Corn. ughel va. RC.
*uchel
vy.
<p align=center>P</p>
Panbridge: Scot., Forfar****re, Pannebride c 1261, cf.W. pant Brigid
(Briget's
valley). RC. * pan y Brigidd. NB. The G is a jod.
<br> Panmure: Scot., Forfar****re, Pannemor c. 1261, cf.W. pant mawr (big
valley), also cf. Corn. pans mur. RC. *pan y mowr.
<br> Pant: Scot. (Stair Parish in Ayr****re), cf.W. pant (valley), cf.
Corn.
pans. RC. *pant. Pant: Wst. a field-name in Kendell Ward, cf.W. pant. RC.
*pant. NB. Field-names indicate a late survival of ***bric.
<br> Pardovan: Scot. Linlithgow****re, Purduuyn c. 1282, Pardovin c. 1542,
cf. W. par ddwfn (deep field), also Pardovingi****ll, Scot. Renfrew****re.
RC.
*par ddwfn.
<br>Parton: Scot. Cf.W. perth (a bush). RC. *perth.
<br> Parwich: Db. Peuerwich c.966, cf.W. pefr wyg (bright farm or copse).
RC. *pefr wic
<br>. Patterdale: Cu. Patrichesdale c. 1148. NB. Patrick's valley.
<br>Peebles: Scot. Cf.W. pabell (a tent or pavillion). RC. *pabel. Peffer:
Scot. Cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr.
<br>Pencaitland: Scot. Penketland c.1296, cf.W. pen coed llan (end of the
wood), cf.Corn. pen cos lan. RC. *pen caidd lan. <br>Penhurrock: Wst.
c.1777. NB. Currock and currick are local words for a heap of stones or a
cairn. The currock in question is a stone circle on a tumulus, grid
83-629104.
<br>Pen Howe: Wst. a field-name in Kendall ward, a hybrid ***bric-Norse
place-name, pen haugr.
<br>*****tone: Scot. Selkirk, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend). RC.
*pen ystrum. *****tone: Yorks. Peningeston
c.1199, cf.W. pen yr ystrum.RC. *pen yn ystrum. Pennystone: Scot.
Kirkmabrek, cf.W. pen yr ystrum (head of the bend). RC. *pen ystrum.
<br>Penicuik: Scot. Edinburgh, cf.W. pen y coed, cf. Corn. pen an cok. RC.
*pen y coc. NB. This
place-name, together with Blencogo, determines that the ultimate C in coc
became
G in the plural, hence sing. *coc pl. *cogow.
<br>Penketh: Lancs. Penket c. 1242, Penketh c. 1259, cf.W. pen coed (wood
end) cf. Corn. pen cos, cf. Bret. Pen koad. RC. *pen caidd.
<br> Penkridge: Staffs. Pencric c.958, cf.W. pen crug. RC. *pen cruc
<br> Penman****el: Scot. Berwick****re, a hybrid ***bric and Norse
place-name
containing Norse skali (a shelter), cf.W.pen maen. RC. *pen main
<br> Pennigant: Scot. Roxburgh, cf.W. pen y gaint (end of the plain).
RC.*pen y gaint (end of the plateaux). Penyghent: Yorks. Penegent c.1307.
NB. Alternative pronunciations for the diphthong AI.
<br>Pennymure: Scot. Roxburgh, cf. W. pen y mur (end of thewall). RC. *pen
y
mur. Penersax: Scot. Dumfries****re, cf.W. pen y sais (hill of the Saxon).
RC. *pen yr sacs.
<br> Penpont: Scot. Dumfries, cf.W. pen pont (bridge end), cf. Penpons in
Cornwall. RC. *pen pont.
<br> Penrith: Cu. Penred c. 1167, Penreth c. 1185, Penerith c.1367, cf.W.
pen rhyd (ford end), cf.Corn. pen res. RC. *pen rydd. <br>Pensax: Wor.
Pen*** c 1231 (Saxon hill).
<br>Penty: Scot. Lanark****re, cf.W. pendy (main house, i.e. manor house).
NB. No lenition in penty.
<br>Peover: Chs. Peuere c. 1277, cf.W. pefr (bright). RC. *pefr. Pilling:
Lancs. Pylin c.1246, cf.W. pyll (pool or creek). RC.* pylen (diminutive,
small pool or creek).
<br> Plenmellior: Nb. Plenmenewre c.1256, Playnmelor c.1279, cf.W. blaen
moel vre (summit of bald mountain). RC. *blain mail vre. NB. The initial
sharp mutation of B into P is unexplained.
<br>Plenploth: Scot., cf.W. blaen y plwyf (parish front or before the
parish). RC. *blain plof
<br>Poltragow: Cu. Poltraghaue c.1485, cf.W. pwll trachau (hills
protruding
into lowland). RC. *pol trachow.
<br>Polmaise: Scot. Stirling****re, cf.W. pwll maes (field pool). RC. *pol
mais.
<br>Pontheugh: Scot. Berwick****re, Hugh's Bridge.
<br>Preesall: Lancs. Preshoved c.1190. A Hybridf ***bric and Norse
place-name meaning Brushwood Head,
cf.W. prys (brushwood, fuel), cf.Corn pres (meadow). RC, *prys.
<br>Presmennan: Scot. East Lothian, Presmunet c. 1160, cf. W. prys mynedd
R.C. *prys monydd. NB.
O before nasal plus stop remains unaltered.
<br>Prenlas: Scot. Leslie Parish in Fife, cf.W. pren glas (green plank).
NB.
The lenition in Prenlas. RC.* pren las. NB. Lenition.
<br> Priorsdale: Cu. Presdale c.1280, cf.W. prys.
<p align=center> R</p>
<br>Raswraget: Cu. a lost place-name in Eskdale Ward, Roswrageth c.1169,
cf.W. rhos wragedd (woman moor). RC. * ros wragedd.
<br> Redmain: Cu. Redeman c.1188, cf.W. Rhyd y Maen (ford of stone) in
Dolgelly. RC. *ryd y main.
<br>Roch: Lancs. River-name, Rachet c. 1292, cf.W. rheged (liberality,
largess, bounty). Rheged, an ancient Romano-British
and Christian kingdom in England during the Dark Ages. RC. * Regedd.
Rochdale: Lancs. Rachedal c.1195, Rachedham c.1193, (valley of the river
Roch.)
<br>Roose: Yorks. Rossa c. 1135, also Roose in Derby****re, Rosse c.1156,
Roose in Che****re, Roose c.1336, also Roos and Rossal in Lanca****re, cf.W.
rhos (moor, heath). RC. *ros.
<br> Ruthven: Scot. Perth****re, cf.W. rhudd faen (red stone), cf.Corn.
ruth
ven. RC. rudd fain.
<p align=center>S </p>
<br>Seisdon: Staffs. Saiesdona c. 1130, Seisdon c.1243, Saxon's Down,
cf.W,
sais (Saxon), cf. Corn. saws (saxon). NB. Compare with Penersax and
Glensax.
RC. *sais.
<br>Sherbourn-in-Elmet: Yorks. Silva Elmete c.730, Elmed saeta (Bede),
Elmet
c. 800, Elmete c.1212, Elmeticos found on a tombestone in Carnarvan, cf.W.
Elvyd.
<p align=center>T</p>
Talkin Fell: Cu. Talkenfell c.1589, cf. W.& Corn.,
tal (brow) and can (white), Bret. Tal kan. RC. *tal can,
<br>Tallentire: Cu.
Tanentire c.1160, cf.W. tal y tir (end of the land), Corn. tal an tyr. RC.
*tal
yn tir, NB. The definite article before dental.
<br>Tarnmonath Fell: Cu. This is a hybrid ***bric and Norse place-name,
cf.
W. mynydd, (mountain) cf.Corn meneth. Tarn from tjorn. RC. *monydd. NB.
This
place-name preserves the ***bric word *monydd as monath. The vowels O and
U
before nasal plus stop did not in ***bric, unlike the rest of the P-Celtic
languages, experience sound change. This in itself is sufficient to
establish ***bric as a separate language in itself, and not just a dialect
of Welsh. Note also the ability of ***bric to adopt load words such a
tjorn.
<br< Tarn Wadling: Cu. Ternewathelan c. 1338, cf.W. Gwyddelan as in the
place-name Dol Wyddelan in Carnarvan****re. The word Gwyddel can mean
either
a pre-Celtic inhabitant or an Irishman. RC. *gwyddelan. In local legend
the
tarn or lake, which was filled in some time ago, was the lake from which
Arthur's sword came. RC. *tarn wyddelan.
<br>Tarvin: Chs. Tervin c.1209, cf.W. terfyn (boundary), from Lat.
terminus.
Teman: Cu. Tenman c.1346, Temayne c.1568, cf.W. tan maen (fire stone),
cf.Corn. ten men. RC. * tan main. NB. Teanen bonfires were lit at May Eve
and Halloween in the Pennines and elsewhere, and cattle were passed
through
two bonfires to cure murrain, tean is a dialect word for a bonfire.
<br> Tercrosset: Cu. Torcrossoc c.1193, cf.W. croesog (abounding in
crosses), cf. Corn. crowsek. RC. *tor crosoc. NB. The origin of the
***bric
word *tor, which abounds expecially in Derby****re and ***brian 12th
century
place-names, is enigmatic. Place-name experts are of the opinion that 12th
century Cornish tin miners were brought into Derby****re to mine lead and
bluestone, and into ***bria to mine graphite for pencils, and they brought
the word tor, which is said to mean a tower, with them by naming cliffs
and
rocky prominences that look like towers tors, such as Mam Tor in
Derby****re.
There is a Welsh word tor, which means a bulge, and it appears in Welsh
place-names such as Tor y Mynydd, but place-name experts discount any
Welsh
influence in favour
of the theory wandering twelfth century Cornish tin miners, for example it
would be foolish to consider a ***bric origin for Mam Tor such as *Main
Tor
y Monydd because Mam Tor is undoubtedly shaped like the tower of a Cornish
tin mine.
<br>Terregles: Scot. Galloway, formerly Traveregles, cf. Corn. place-name
Treveglos
(church town or a village containing the parish church). RC. *tref yr
egles.
<br>Torpenhow: Cu. Torpennoc c.1163, cf. W. penog (abounding in peaks).
RC.
*torpenoc. NB. It is possible that the wandering Cornish tin miners, so
beloved by place-name experts, first wandered through Wales, then
Derby****re, and finally to ***berland, picking up a smattering of Welsh on
the way, such as the Welsh word penog, hence a Cornish and Welsh hybrid
place name *tor penog.
<br>Trabroun: Scot., in Lauderdale, Treuerbrun c.1170, cf.W. tref y bryn
(village on the hill), also Trabroun in Haddington, Scotland. RC. *tref yr
bryn. NB.Definite article.
<br> Trenant: Scot. Edinburgh, formerly Trevernent, cf.W. tref y neintydd
(town of the steep sided valley). RC. * tref yr neint. NB. Note the
definite
article and the ***bric plural of the word nant.
<br>Traprain: Scot. Haddington,Trepren c.1335, cf.W. trefbren (plank
village). It if possible that this settlement was composed of scalis,
which
consists of planks covered in turves and fa****oned in a circular pattern,
the ends of the planks being fixed by a
circle of stones, the original for Hobbit Hole .RC. *tre pren NB. No
lenition.
<br>Treales: Chs. cf. W. tref y llys (village containing the court, which
is
to say the court of the local dengi or ruler and tax collector).
<br>Trevercraig: Scot. Carrick, cf.W. tref y craig (village of stone),
also
Trevercrageis: Ayr****re in
Scotland. RC. * tref yr craic.
<br>Triermain: Cu. Treverman c.1169, cf.W. tref y maen (village of stone).
RC. *tref yr main.
<br>Troloss: Scot. Lanark****re, cf.W. tre llwst (village tail), cf. Corn.
tre lost. RC. * tre lwst.
<br>Trusty's Hill: Scot. This place-name refers to Tristan who was a local
chief, viz. the legend
of Tristan and Isolde.
<br>Tulketh: Lancs. cf. W. twll coed (cave or pit wood). RC.
*twl caidd.
<p align=center>W </p>
<br>Warren Burn: Nb. Warnet c.1157, cf.W. gwernydd (alder trees, or a bog
or
marsh). RC.*gwarnydd. NB. E before R plus stop becomes A.
<br>Watermellock: Cu. Wethermelok c.1253, cf.W. gwydr moelog (green or
blue
baldness, i.e. a heath). RC. *gwydr mailoc. <br>Werneth Low: Chs. Wernyth
c.1352, cf,W, gwernydd (alder trees). RC.*gwernydd.
<br>Wharf: Yorks. A river-name, Verbeia, meaning a winding river, Weorf
c.963, Werf c.1112, Warf c. 1155, Hwef c.1155. RC. *gwerf & *gwarf. NB.
The
pesent name is from the Norse word hvarf, which means a bend. Note also
how
E before R became A in the second spelling. This sound change is a feature
of ***bric.
<br>Winister: Wst. Winster c.1170, cf.Gwensteri (white stream) in a verse
by
Taliesin. RC. *gwyn ysteri.
<br>Winwick: Lancs. Winequic c.1170,
Wynewich c.1212, cf.W. gwyn wyg (white village), cf.Corn. gwyn wyk. RC.
gwyn
wyc.
<p align=center> Y </p>
<br>Yeavering: Nb. Adgefrin (Bede), Yever c.1242, Yevre c.1329, also
Yeavering Bell, a nearby hill, cf. W geifr ryn (goat's hill), cf.Corn.
gever
bryn. RC. *geifr ryn. NB. G pronounced as a jod, as in Welsh.
<br>Yanwath: near Penrith, cf.W. un (one, only, single). RC. *un wadd.
(only
ford). NB. Gwadd is a
loan word from Norse vadr meaning a ford.</p>
<p align=center>***bric Place-Name Vocabulary with Reconstruction in
Brackets</p>
<br>
<br>A
<br>ABER a conflux
<br>ALD a cliff
<br>AVERICK cowslip
<br>
<br>B
<br>BANNOCK a cake
<br>BURN a stream
<br>BAR a hilltop
<br>BARROCK a spur
<br>BATH a boar
<br>BORDD a cowfold, dairy
<br>BRANT a steep fell
<br>BLA a wolf
<br>BLEN flat of a fell top
<br>BOC a stream
<br>BRUN a hill
<br>BRYN a hill
<br>
<br>C
<br>CAM crooked, a bend
<br>CAMER a conflux
<br>CAPLE, CAPPLE a horse
<br>CAR a villa, farmhouse (cair)
<br>CAR THEW black farmhouse (cair ddew)
<br>CARN a burial mound
<br>COGOW cuckoos
<br>CRAIG a rock
<br>CRAYK a rock (craig)
<br>
<br>D
<br>DINNIS a tem****ary fortification
<br>DER water (dwr)
<br>DRONOW a circle of standing stones
<br>DUNNOKE Donatus (Dunot)
<br>
<br>E
<br>E definite article, the (y)
<br>ER definite article, the (yr)
<br>
<br>K
<br>KAL hard (cal)
<br>KARTHUR a seat or throne (carthur)
<br>KETH a wood (caidd)
<br>
<br>L
<br>LES a stream
<br>LES a court
<br>LOS a tail
<br>
<br>M
<br>MAN rock or stone (main)
<br>MAKER a wall or ancient ruine
<br>MELOK baldness
<br>MEN rock or stone
<br>
<br>N
<br>NENT pl. n. v-shaped valleys
<br>
<br>P
<br>PEN head, chief, conical hill
<br>PREN a plank
<br>
<br>R
<br>RUTH red
<br>RUTH VEN red stone (ruth vain)
<br>
<br>S
<br>STER a stream (yster)
<br>
<br>T
<br>TREV vill, village
<br>TULL pit, hole (tul)
<br>
<br>W
<br>WARNET alder trees (late var. gwarneth)
<br>WETHER blue or green, bluish green (gwether)
<br>WERNETH alder trees (gwerneth)
<br>WITH a wood (gwith)
<br>WICK a coppice (gwic)
<br>WIN white (gwin)
<br>WINSTER (gwen ysteri)
<br>
<br>Q
<br>QUIC a coppice (wic)
<br>
<br>Y
<br>YAN one (un)
<br>YEVER a goat
<p align=center> Phonology </p>
<p align=justify>The next step is to create a Standard Reconstructed
***bric, or S.R.C., by examining the surviving written
sources of ***bric from place-names. This made the task easier by the fact
that there are remarkable similarities between ***bric and Welsh and
Cornish, especially the variety of Cornish known as Kernewek. This chapter
has three parts, the first part deals with Prythonic vowels and their
development, the second part deals with the respelling of Welsh vowels
into
***bric, and the
third part deals with the respelling of Welsh consonants into ***bric.
<p align=center>Vowels </p>
<br>Prythonic short-A
<br> Prythonic short-A remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
***bric. Examples of Prythonic short-A can be found in many ***bric
place-names
<div>Prythonic long-A
<br>Prythonic long-A changed into long-O or O-mega in proto-Welsh,
proto-Cornish, proto-Breton, and proto-***bric, but long-O subsequently
changed into the diphthong consisting of short OU in Welsh, Cornish, and
Breton, but because long-O is still a feature of North British speech it
has
been retained in S.R.C. Examples of long-O can be found in medieval Cambok
and Kirkecambok.
<div>Prythonic short-E
<br> Prythonic short-E remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton,
but
in ***bric short-E changed into short-A before the consonants L and R, as
in
the place-names Leswalt, Warren Burn, Parton, and Tarvin. An intrusive
short-E also developed in ***bric between the consonants stop plus L and
R.
This is particularly evident in the place-name Lotherdale, of which the
lother is derived from Latin latronis, cf. Cornish lader, meaning thief.
Short-E disappeared between L and R followed by a stop, for example
Cardurnock and the Welsh word durenog, the ***bric element durn
corresponding to Welsh duren. Note also the ***bric word galnas in Leges
Inter Brettos et Scottos, which corresponds to Welsh galanas.
<div> Prythonic long-E
<br>Prythonic long-E became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric,
for example the ***bric place-name Keer derived from Prythonic *ceros.
Prythonic short-I Prythonic short-I remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish,
Breton, and ***bric.
<div>Prythonic short-O
<br>Prythonic short-O remained unchanged in ***bric, but in Welsh, short-O
became short-U before a nasal and before a liquid plus stop, and short-I
in
pretonic syllables, for example the Welsh word mynydd appears with short-O
in the place-name Tarnmonath
<div>Prythonic long-O
<br>Prythonic long-O became the diphthong short-OU in Welsh, Cornish,
Breton, and ***bric, but because long-O persists in local dialect, long-O
perhaps remained unchanged in ***bric.
<br> Prythonic short-U
<br>Prythonic short-U generally remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, and
Breton, but there was a tendency for it to become short-O in ***bric, as
in
Pardovan and Troloss. Short U became short I in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton
before a nasal plus stop, but remained unchanged in ***bric.
<br>Prythonic long-U
<br>Prythonic long U became long-I in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric,
but place-name evidence indicate that this change was slow in ***bric, but
the place-names Cardew and Dintsmere indicate this sound change.
<br>Prythonic
long-W
<br>Prythonic long-W remained unchanged in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and
***bric, as in the ***bric place-names Polmaise and Poltragon.
<p align=center>Diphthongs<p>
<br> AE
<br>The Welsh diphthong AE becomes either short-E in ***bric, as in
Blencarn, Blencathra, Blencogo, Blencow, Blennerhasset, Menstrie, Mellor,
Melrose, Plenmellior, and Plenploth, or short-A as in Caraverick,
Cardurnock, Cardew, Cardunneth Pike, Carleton, Carnetly, Carrick, Carrock
Fell, Carwinley, Castel Carrock, and Mam Tor. AI The Welsh diphthong AI
becomes either short A in
***bric, as in Pennigant, or Short-E as in Penyghent.
<br>AW
<br>The Welsh diphthong AW becomes the short-diphthong OU in the
place-name
Lanercost.
<br> EI The Welsh diphthong EI becomes AI in the ***bric place-name
Lanrekaythrin, but as short-E
in the medieval spelling of the ***bric place-name Carnetly (Carn
Thelaue).
<br> EU The Welsh diphthong EU appears as AW and OW in medieval spellings
of
the ***bric
place-name Carwinley (Carwyndelawae, Karwendelowe).
<br> The Welsh diphthong EW appears as long-U and the diphthong short-OU
in
the medieval spellings of
Niddrie (Nodref, ****ref).
<br>IW The Welsh diphthong IW remains as IW in the place-name ***rew. The
Welsh diphthongs EO, IO, and Yw appear as EW in cognate Cornish words, and
so presumable would appear as IW in ***bric.
<br> OE The Welsh diphthong OE becomes short-E in the place-names
Culcheth,
Hesketh, Mellor, Melrose, Plenmellior, and Tulketh, but as long-I in the
place-names Cheetham and Kieth, and the diphthong EI in Culgaith.
<br>OI, OU The Welsh diphthongs OI and OU are very rare in Welsh and no
***bric equivalents have survived.
<br>WA The Welsh diphthong WA remains unchanged in the medieval ***bric
place-name Wastpatrick Wath.
<br> WY The Welsh diphthong WY appears as both WI and the diphthong
short-OU
in
the medieval spelling of the river-name Goyt (Got and Gwith).
<br>UA The Welsh diphthong UA in buarth appears as short-I in the ***bric
place-names Birdoswald and Burtholm.
<br> UO The Welsh diphthong UO appears as the triphthong short-IVO in the
place-names Devoke Water and ***divock, cf. W. duog, dark, hence *cwm
divoc
for cwm duog.
<p align=center< Consonants</center></p>
<br> B Welsh B remains unchanged in ***bric place-names such as Blencogo.
Etc.
<br> C Welsh Remains unchanged in Reconstructed ***bric.
<br> Ch Welsh ch appears unaltered in Eccle Fechan, and so remains
unchanged.
<br> D Initial Welsh D remains unchanged, but elsewhere Welsh D appears as
DD or voiced-th in Culcheth, Culgaith, Penketh, Tulketh, Lothersdale,
andWethermellock. This represent a sound change in original ***bric.
Initial
Welsh D remains unchanged
in Reconstructed ***bric but becomes DD elsewhere.
<br> DD Welsh DD remains unchanged in Roswrageth, *rhos wragydd, and so
remains unchanged in reconstructed ***bric.. TH Welsh TH or unvoiced-th
remains unchanged in Lanrekaythin, and so remains unchanged in
reconstructed
***bric.
<br> F Welsh F remains unchanged in Eccle Fechan, Carfrae, Macefen, and
remains unchanged in Reconstrcuted ***bric despite being spelt as V
elsewhere. There was what seems to be a sound change in Late ***bric from
F
into FF as in Lindifferon, and Peffer. FF Welsh FF remains unchanged
within
Reconstrcuted ***bric.
<br>G Welsh G becomes C in ***bric place-names with a few exceptions, for
example Penicuik, which in Welsh is pen y cog, has to be compared with
Blencogo. In ***bric cuckoo was coc in the singulart but cogow in the
plural, hence *pen y coc for Penicuik, and *blen y cogow for Blencogo.
<br>GW Welsh GW remains unchanged in Din Gouary, the old name for
Bamborough. It alsoappears as WH in Couwhencatte, and H in hestada, a
North
British and Manx tax recorded in the Doomsday Book, and which corresponded
to the medieval Welsh
tax called gwestfa. Welsh GW remains unchanged in Reconstructed ***bric.
<br> LL Welsh LL appears to have disappeared in ***bric, and appears as L
in
Landican, Lanercost, Linlithgow, Liscard, etc., yet despite this LL is
spelt
LH in ***bric despite being pronounced as L.</p>
<p align=center>***bric Grammar</center></p>
<p align=center>Contents</center></p>
<p align=justify><ol><p align=justify>
<li>Gender of Nouns<br>Nouns and adjectives in modern P-Celtic languages
are not declined. All that remains of the original Prythonic declensions
is
ender. There were originally three genders, masculine, feminine, and
neuter.
Nouns belonging to the neuter gender passed into either the masculine or
feminine genders according to the similarity of neuter genders. In
consequence a word may be feminine in Cornish and masculine in Welsh. The
general rule in Reconstructed ***liic is to follow Welsh usage.
<li>Plural of Nouns
plurals are formed in three ways. i. By the addition of plural suffixes.
Two
***bric plural suffixes have survived. These are -ow as in Blencogo, which
corresponds to Welsh -au, and ydd as in Werneth and Warren Burn (Warnet
c.1157), which corresponds to Welsh -ydd. ii. By vowel mutation. An
example
of a plural formed by vowel mutation exists in the place-name Tranent,
earlier Trev er Nent, meaning the Villa of the Narrow Valleys, the ***bric
of which is *tref yr neint. iii. By the existence of aggregate plurals
from
which singulars are formed by the addition of diminutive suffixes. A good
example of this is Ketton in Rutland, which means a tree. This in ***bric
is
caithen, meaning a tree, from caith meaning a wood. N.B., Some Welsh
plurals
are formed by vowel mutation and
the addition of plural suffixes. A good example of this is neintydd, the
plural of nant, which means a stream. It can be seen from the example of
Trev er Nent that the additional of plural suffixes after vowel mutations
was dispensed with in ***bric.
<li>The Definite Article
There are three ***bric definite articles.
<ul>
<li> The definite article y as in Blencogo (Blen e Cogou c.1256), the
***bric of which is *blain y cogow.
<li>. The definite article yr as in Tranent (earlier Trev er Nent), the
***bric of which is *tref yr neint, and Terregles (earler Trev er
Egles), the ***bric of which is *tref yr egles.
<li> The definite article yn as in Liscard (Lhis en Cark c.1256), the
***bric of which is *lys yn cark, and Tallentire, the ***bric of which is
*tal yn tir. Although no grammatical rules governing the definite article
can be found it is to be presumed that
grammatical rules would have been invented if Old ***bric had become a
written language. The present grammatical rules therefore apply. Welsh
Cornish Breton ***bric y before consonants an in ar before consonants y
before consonants yr before vowels all cases an before vowels yr before
vowels and H and H an before T,D H yn before T,D al before L</ul>
<li> The Indefinite Article
No indefinite article exists in Welsh, but Breton has three indefinite
articles, UR, UN, and UL, which are governed by the same rule that governs
the definite article. Cornish has a definite article that is occasionally
used to emphasise the noun. ***bric follows Cornish because of the
Northcountry indefinite articles yan and yin,from ***bric un.
<li> The Genitive
Adjectival genitives are formed in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric by
placing two indefinite nouns together, thus the
***bric place-name Blencarn means (The) Cairn's Summit. Whole genitive
sentences can be formed, such as the Welsh sentence: Sail ty mab brenin
Lloegr, meaning, 'The foundation of the house of the son of the king of
England,' the ***bric of which is *Sail ty map brenin Lhaigr. ii. The
definite article can be used in place of the English 'of ' to form a
genitive by being placed between two or
more nouns, such as the Welsh sentence: Y sail y ty y mab y brenin y
Lloegr,
hence the ***bric place-name Blencogo from *blain y cogow.
<li> Mutations
certain cir***stances the first consonants of Celtic words can change.
This
is called mutation. There is some evidence that ***bric, in common with
Cornish and Breton, possessed sharp mutation, which is absent in Welsh
Welsh
Cornish Breton ***bric
<ul>
<li> Soft Mutation C - G C, K - G K - G, C'h C - G (Penyghent)
<li>T - D T - D T - D T- D (Landican)
<li>P - B P -B P - B P - B (Larbet)
<li> G -silent G - silent G - C'h G - silent (Prenlas)
<li> Gw - W Gw - W Gw - W Gw - W (Carwin)
<li>B - F B - V B - V B - F (Carfrae)
<li>D- DD D - DH D - Z D - DD M - F M - V M - V M - F (Ruthven)</ul>
<ul>
<li> Aspirate Mutation <li>C - CH C, K - H, <li>Wh K - C'h C - CH
(Penhurrock) <li>T - TH T- TH T - Z T - TH (Carnetly) <li>P - PH P - F P -
F
P - F (Dalfibble) . </ul>
Sharp Mutation
<ul>
<li>B - P B - P B - P (Plenmellior) <li>D - T D - T D - T<li> G - C,K G -
K
G - C <li>GW - QU GW - KW GW - QU (***quencath)</ul>
<li>7. Soft Mutation
<li> Soft Mutation in ***bric<ul>
<li>C - G GW - W <li>T - D <li>B - F P - B <li>D - DD <li>G - silent M -
F</ul>
<p align=justify> In Welsh there are twenty-one grammatical rules
governing
soft mutation. It is obvious from place-name evidence that ***bric
deteriorate both in vocabulary and grammar, so the general method is to
accept a Welsh lenition if at least one example can be found in a ***bric
place-name, and to accept a Welsh lenition in the absence of a ***bric
place-name if at least in one other example of the same lenition can be
found in another P-Celtic language. Some lenitions that appear only in
Welsh
can be accepted.</p>
<ul>
<li>Rule 1 Feminine singular nouns undergo soft mutation after the
definite
article.Example Penyghent and Pennigant Rule
<li>2 Both masculine and feminine nouns adopt soft mutation after
adjectives
such as hen (old) and cul (narrow). Example Culgaith <li>Rule 3 Nouns
adopt
soft mutation after the prepositions am (at, about), ar (upon), at
(towards), dros (over), drwy (through), dan (under), i (to), wrth (with,
by), o (of), hyd (to, till), heb (without), gan (with). Example
Yan-ar-bumpit, Shepherd's notation for sixteen.
<li>Rule 4. Nouns adopt lenition after the possessive pronouns thy and his
in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and therefore in ***bric also. (Welsh dy and
ei,
Cornish dha and y, Breton da and e: Welsh 'th after a vowel, Cornish 'th
after a vowel, Breton 'az after a vowel.) <li>Rule 5 Nouns adopt lenition
after two in Welsh, Cornish, Breton, and ***bric. Example Dotheck,
Shepherd's
notation for nineteen.
<li>Rule 6 In Welsh and Cornish, and therefore in ***bric also, two
adopts
lenition after the definite article.<li>Rule 7 In Welsh and Breton, and
therefore in ***bric also, feminine nouns adopt lenition after the numeral
one. In Cornish masculine nouns adopt lenition after one and the
indefinite
article.
<li>Rule 8 Nouns in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in ***bric
also, adopt lenition after the adjective what. <li>Rule 9 Two nouns or an
adjective and a noun can be joined together in ***bric to form a single
word. Example Ogilvie (*ochilfa or highplace), Mellor (*mailvre or
baldhill).
<li>Rule 10 Nouns and verbs adopt lenition after most prefixes in Welsh,
Cornish, Breton, and therefore in ***bric also. Example Larbet, earlier
lethberth (*leddberth semi-bush).
<li>Rule 11 Adjectives in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and therefore in
***bric also, adopt lenition after feminine singular nouns. Example
Ecclefechan (*ecles fechan, littlechurch), Drumburgh, earlier Dromboc
(*drum
bach, small ridge)
<li> Rule 12 In medieval Welsh verbs after the pronoun e meaning it adopt
lenition. This same rule applies in ***bric despite the fact that this
rule
does not occur in any other P-Celtic language. This rule has been adopted
from Welsh for grammatical reasons. <li>Rule 13 Welsh and Cornish verbs,
therefore also verbs ***bric, adopt lenition after the interrogative
particle A
<li> Rule 14 Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore ***bric verbs, adopt
lenition after the relative pronouns a and na.
<li>Rule 15 Welsh and Cornish verbs, and therefore in ***bric also, adopt
lenition after the conjunction when.
<li>Rule 16 Verbs in Cornish and Breton adopt lenition after the negative
particle, but in Welsh all verbs adopt lenition except verbs that begin
with
C, P, T. ***bric follows Welsh usage on the presumption that ***bric is
closer to Welsh that to Cornish and Breton.
Rule 17 Welsh verbs adopt lenition after the infinite particle yn. It is
presumed that because of the ease with which the ***bric poems of Taliesin
and Aneirin were translated into Welsh that the same rule applies in
***bric. </ul>
<li> Aspirate Mutation
<li> Sharp Mutation
<li> Personal Pronouns
<li> Reflective Pronouns
<li> Conjunctive Pronouns
<li> Emphatic Pronouns
<li> Possessive Pronouns
<li> Pronoun Objects
<li> Demonstrative Pronouns
<li> Demonstrative Adjectives
<li> Demonstrative Adjectives without a Qualifying Noun
<li>The Adverbial Particle
<li> Relative Pronouns
<li> Inflected Prepositional Pronouns
<li> The Syntax of Adjectives
<li> The Syntax of Pronouns
<li> The Equative
<li> The Comparative
<li> The Superlative
<li> Adjectives of Comparison and Superlativity
<li> Declension of Adjectives
<li> Adjectival Suffixes
<li> Abstract Nouns
<li> Adjectival Nouns
<li>Numerals
<li>Ordinal Numbers
<li> The Syntax of the ***bric Verb
<li> The Present-Future Tense
<li> The Past Continuous
<li> The Preterite Tense
<li> The Pluperfect Tense
<li> The Subjunctive Tense
<li> The Imperative
<li> The Passive Tense
<li> The Present Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Present Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Verb To Be With Reference to Time and Place
<li> The Verb To Be After the Interrogative Who
<li> The Verb To Be Used as an Auxiliary in the Present Continuous tense
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Verb To Be as an Auxiliary in the Imperfect Tense
<li> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Past Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Future Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Be
<li> Other Pluperfect Tenses
<li> The Conditional Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Interrogative
<li> The Negative Particle
<li> The Negative Relative Pronoun
<li> The Affirmative and Negative responses
<li> Irregular Verbs
<li> The Infinitive of the Verb To Go
<li> The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Go
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Go
<li> The Perfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
<li> The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Go
<li> The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
<li> The Verb To Do
<li> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Do
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Do
<li> The Verb To Come
<li> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Come
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Come
<li> Other Irregular Verbs Declined Like the Verb To Be
<li> Verbs That Are Irregular in the Third Person Singular
<li> Prepositional Idioms
<li>The Gerund of the Verb
<li> Re****ted Speech
<li> Adverbial Clauses
<li> The Verb To Have
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Have
<li> The Perfect Tense of the Verb To Have
<li> The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Have
<li> The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Have
<li> Requests and the Verb To Have
<li> Prefixes
<li> Suffixes
<li> Aspirate Mutation in ***bric.
<li>Rule 1. Aspirate Mutation in ***bric. C CH P F T TH Rule 1 In
Cornish and Breton words following the first singular possessive pronouns
adopt
aspirate mutation, but in Welsh they adopt nasal mutation. No example of
nasal
mutation survives in ***bric but examples of aspirate foundation exist in
***bric place-names, therefore Reconstructed ***bric follows Cornish and
Breton
usage of aspirate mutation .
<li> Rule 2 Words following the feminine third
possessive pronoun singular adopt aspirate mutation in Welsh and Cornish,
and
therefore in ***bric also, adopt aspirate mutation.
<li>Rule 3 Welsh and Cornish
nouns and therefore ***bric nouns also, adopt aspirate mutation after the
comparative particle NA, which is used with adjectives of comparison. Rule
4
Welsh and Cornish words and therefore ***bric words also, following three
adopt
aspirate mutation. Welsh words following six, adopt aspirate mutation but
there
is no need to adopt this usage in ***bric.
<li> Sharp Mutation B P D T G C GW CW
<li>Rule 1 Cornish and Breton words that follow if (mar, ma), and ***bric
words
also, adopt sharp mutation. Welsh words following if (mar) adopt lenition.
<li>91.Personal Pronouns English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric I fi, i my,
fy
me mi, i
thou, thee ti ti, sy te ti he, him ef ef en ef she, her it hi e, o hy, y
hi
hi
we, us ni ny ni ni you, ye chwi why chewy chwi they, them hwy nhw y int
hwi
Welsh (and therefore ***bric) possesses special reflective, conjunctive,
and
emphatic pronouns.
<li> Reflexive Pronouns English Welsh and ***bric English
Welsh and ***bric I myself myfy we ourselves nyni thou thyself tydy you
yourself
chychwi he himself efe they themselves hwyntwy she herself hyhi hwynt it
itself
fo nwythaw
<li> Conjunctive Pronouns He himself English Welsh and ***bric English
Welsh and ***bric I also minnau we also ninnau thou also tithau you also
chwithau he also yntau they also hwyntau she also hithau hwythau it also o
nhwy
<li> Emphatic Pronouns English Welsh and ***bric English Welsh and ***bric
I
myself also myfinnau we ourselves also nyninnau thou thyself also tydithau
you
yourselves also chychwithau he himself also fe they themselves also
hwythau
she
herself also hyhithau hwyntwy it itself also efo ydd
<li> Possessive Pronouns
English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric my fy,'m ow(m) ma my, 'm thy, thine
dy,
'th
dha, 'th da, 'az dy, 'th his ei, 'i, 'w y e ai, 'i, 'w her, hers ei, 'i,
'w
y e
ai, 'i, 'w our, ours ein, 'n agan ma ain, 'n your, yours eich, 'ch agas ho
aich.
'ch their, theirs eu, 'u, 'w aga e ai, 'w As in Welsh the ***bric
possessive
pronouns become 'm, 'th, 'i, 'n, 'ch, and 'u after a (and), and o (from),
and ai
become 'w after i (to). My and dy are followed by soft mutation in ***bric
<li> Pronoun Objects When the pronoun is the object of the verb particles
are
employed. hi a-walth ef she sees him ef e-gwalth hi him, sees she ef
a-walth
hi
he sees her hi e-gwalth ef her, sees he
<li> Demonstrative Pronouns English Welsh
Cornish Breton ***bric this (m) hwn hemma hemman hon this (f) hon hemma
homan
hon these hyn hyn that (m) hwnnw henna hennezh honno that (f) honno henna
hennezh honno those hynny hynny
<li> Demonstrative Adjectives The definite
article precedes the noun. In Cornish and Breton demonstrative adverb
follows
the noun. English Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric this man y dyn hwn an
den-ma
al
den-man yn dyn hon this woman yr wraig hon an wrek-ma an wreg-man yr wraic
hon
these people y dynion hyn an tus-ma an tud-man yn tudd hon that man y dyn
hwnnw
an den-na al den-se yn dyn honno that woman yr wraig honno an wrek-na an
wreg-se
yr wraic honno those people y dynion hynny an tus-na an tud-se yn tudd hon
18.
Demonstrative Adjectives without a Qualifying Noun Demonstrative
adjectives
without a qualifying noun are made in the same way by using an indefinite
article. English Welsh Cornish ***bric these (m) y rhai hwn an re-ma y
ra-ma
these (f) y rhai yma an re-ma y ra-ma those (m) y rhai hyna an re-na y
ra-na
those (f) y rhai yna an re-na y ra-na N.B. In Cornish and ***bric the
levelling
of the diphthong AI to E in the case of Cornish and A in the case of
***bric
occasions the disappearance of the preceding consonant. A levelling of y
rhai
hwn in Welsh to y ra-ma in ***bric follows the same linguistic rule that
is
responsible for the Cornish y re-ma.
<li> The Demonstrative Adverb English Welsh
Cornish Breton ***bric here yma omma eman yma there yna ena eno (azo) yna
The
demonstrative adverb can also serve to answer to the English phrases,
"here
is
a.here are" and "there is a.there are." If the definite article is used
***bric,
like Medieval Welsh and Cornish, uses the vocative, "Lo the man" as in
Medieval
Welsh, "Wel y dyn," and in Cornish "Ot an den." Because of the mutation of
short
E to short A in ***bric the ***bric equivalent is, "Wal y dyn."
<li>100. The Adverbial Particle In Welsh, Cornish, and ***bric the
adverbial
particle yn is
placed before adjectives in order to turn them into adverbs, thus in Welsh
drwg
(bad) and da (good) become yn ddrwg and yn dda, Cornish drok and da become
yn-trok and yn-ta, and so in ***bric drwc and da become yn ddrwc and yn
dda.
<li> Relative Pronouns Welsh, Cornish, and ***bric translations into Welsh
possess
relative pronouns that correspond to the English relative "that" and
"which".
In
positive sentences this relative pronoun is A before vowels and
consonants.
In
negative sentences is NA before consonants but NAD in Welsh and NANS in
Cornish
before vowels. The corresponding ***bric is NADD. When a preposition or
the
genitive "whose" is used the relative pronoun Y is substituted for A in
Welsh
and the preposition is placed at the end of the sentence, thus on Welsh,
"Dyma'r
llyfr y darllenais y stori ynddo" (Here is the book which I read the story
in
it). Welsh "dyma" is a variant of "yma," which means here or here is, and
which
corresponds to the Breton "eman". this rule appears in Taliesin, for
example;"Trist yd gwyn pob colledig" or ""Sadly does every condemned one
complain"; therefore it appears in ***bric, hence, "Yma'r lyfr y darlenais
y
saga ynddo." English Welsh ***bric the one yr hwn yr hon that which y neb
y
nep
such ones r rhai y rai either y naill y nail who pwy pwy what pa pa which
one pa
un pa un which ones pa rhai pa rai how many pa sol pa sol what place,
where
why
pa le, ple py pa le, p'le pa am. p'am how are you pa sut sydd pa sut sydd,
pa
su'dd In Welsh the relative pronoun pwy is followed by a special form of
the
verb to be, which is sydd, or sy for short. It is not necessary to use the
phrase "pwy sydd" since "sydd" alone implies the interrogative pronoun
"pwy".
Note that in Welsh relative pronouns occasion the lenition of G, B, D and
M,
and
the aspirate mutation of C, P. T. No example of aspirate lenition has been
discovered in ***bric place-names with the result that only the lenition
of
G,
B, and D occurs after relative pronouns.
<li> Inflected Prepositional Pronouns In Welsh the following prepositions
are inflected by adopting the personal pronoun,
am (about), ar (upon), at ( towards), er (for), heb (without), hyd
(until),
i
(to), idd (into), han (from), can (with), o (from), odd (from), tan
(under),
tros (over), trwy (through), oddiar (from upon), odditan (from beneath),
rhag
(before), rhwng (among), wrth (by), and yn (in). ***bric follows Old
Welsh,
Cornish, and Breton usage. The Old Welsh inflection found in the third
person
plural appears in Taliesin, "Deuddeg meib Israel a thair mam iddu onaddu y
doeth
rhad a geisidydd mad." (The twelve sons of Israel and three mothers to
thee
from
them there came a blessing." English Welsh Old Welsh Cornish Breton
***bric
in
me ynddof ynof ynnof ennon ynof in thee ynddot ynot ynnes ennout ynoth in
him
ynddo yno ynno ennan yno in her ynddi yni ynny enni yni in us ynddem ynem
ynnon
ennomp ynem in you ynddoch ynoch ynnough enno'ch ynoch in them ynddynt ynu
ynna
enno ynu The Old Welsh inflection English Welsh Old Welsh Cornish Breton
***bric
to me imi imi dhem (mo) din imi to thee iti iti dhes (so) dit iti to him
iddo
iddo dhodhno dezhan iddo to her iddi iddi dhedhy dezhi iddi to us ini ini
dhen
deomp ini to you ichwi ichwi dheugh deoc'h ichwi to them iddynt iddynt
dhedha
dezho iddynt English Welsh Old Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric upon me arnaf
arnaf
warnaf warnon arnaf upon thee arnat arnat warned warnout arnath upon him
arno
arno warnodhe warnan arno upon her arni arni warnedhy warni arni upon us
arnom
arnom warnan warnomp arnom upon you arnoch arnoch warnough warnoc'h arnoch
upon
them arnynt arnu warnedha warno arnu English Welsh Old Welsh Cornish
Breton
***bric with me gennyf gennyf genen ganin gennyf with thee gennyt gennyt
genes
ganit gennyt with him ganddo ganddo ganso gantan ganddo with her ganddi
ganddi
gansy ganti ganddi with us gennym gennym genen ganeomp gennym with you
gennych
gennych genough ganeoc'h gennych with them ganddynt ganddu gansa ganto
gandu
Am,
such as in amdanaf for about me, adopts the preposition tan when
inflected.
Some
prepositions, such as uch or above are not inflected at all. English Welsh
Old
Welsh Cornish Breton ***bric above me uch i uch i uch i above thee uch ti
uch ti
uch ti above him uch ef uch ef uch ef above her uch hi uch hi uch hi above
us
uch ni uch ni uch ni above you above them uch chwy uch hwy uch chwy uch
hwy
uch
chwy uch hwy
<li> The Syntax of Adjectives In Prythonic adjectives preceded the
noun, as in some early ***bric place-names, but adjectives later began to
follow
the noun in all P-Celtic languages. In Welsh there are a few exceptions,
such as
hen (old) and uchel (high). With regard to uchel, this is confirmed in
***bric
by the ***bric place-name Ochilvie.
<li> The Syntax of Pronouns Pronouns precede
the noun if no other word intervenes, and if they are accompanied by an
adjective or article. A pronoun must agree with the noun for which it
stands
in
both gender and number, thus in Welsh, "Ef dyn cryf" (He [is] a strong
man)
and,
"Hi y fenyw" (She [is] a strong female). Modern Welsh employs verbal
auxiliaries
such as, "Y mae ef dyn yn-gryf," etc. ***bric follows medieval Welsh
usage.
25.
The Equative A simple statement such as, "The apple is red" appears in
Cornish,
Breton, and Medieval Welsh as follows. Breton, "Ruz eo al aval." Cornish.
"Yr
afal yn rhudd." Medieval Welsh, "Yr afal yw rhudd." To make an equative
statement such as "The apple is as red as fire," Modern Welsh employs
certain
adverbs and adds a suffix to the adjective; hence, "Y mae'r afal cyn
goched
a
than," but the Medieval Welsh is, "Yr afal yw yn rhudded a than." ***bric
follows Medieval Welsh usage. In order to make a simple statement such as,
"The
apple is as red," Welsh employs a different adverb, "Yr afal yw can
goched."
***bric, "Yr afal yw can rhudded.
<li> The Comparative A comparative statement
such as, "The apple is redder than fire," appears in Modern Welsh as, "Yr
afal
yw yn gochad na than," the Medieval Welsh of which is, "Yr afal yw
rhuddach
na
than." The Breton equival is, "An aval eo ruzoc'h na tan." ***bric follows
Medieval Welsh usage.
<li> The Superlative
<li> Adjectives of Comparison and
Superlativity
<li> Declension of Adjectives
<li> Adjectival Suffixes
<li> Abstract Nouns
<li> Adjectival Nouns
<li> Numerals
<li> Ordinal Numbers
<li> The Syntax of the ***bric Verb
<li> The Present-Future Tense
<li> The Past Continuous
<li> The Preterite Tense
<li> The Pluperfect Tense
<li> The Subjunctive Tense
<li> The Imperative
<li> The Passive Tense
<li> The Present Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Present Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Verb To Be With Reference to Time and Place
<li> The Verb To Be After the Interrogative Who
<li> The Verb To Be Used as an Auxiliary in the Present Continuous tense
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Verb To Be as an Auxiliary in the Imperfect Tense
<li> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Past Habitual Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Future Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Be
<li> Other Pluperfect Tenses
<li>. The Conditional Tense of the Verb To Be
<li> The Interrogative
<li> The Negative Particle
<li> The Negative Relative Pronoun
<li>The Affirmative and Negative responses
li> Irregular Verbs
<li> The Infinitive of the Verb To Go
<li> The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Go
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Go
<li> The Perfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
<li> The Subjunctive Tense of the Verb To Go
<li> The Pluperfect Tense of the Verb ToGo
<li>The Verb To Do
<li> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Do
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Do
<li> The Verb To Come
<li> The Preterite Tense of the Verb To Come
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Come
<li> Other Irregular Verbs Declined Like the Verb To Be
<li> Verbs That Are Irregular in the Third Person Singular
<li> Prepositional Idioms
<li> The Gerund of the Verb
<li> Re****ted Speech
<li> Adverbial Clauses
<li> The Verb To Have
<li> The Imperfect Tense of the Verb To Have
<li> The Perfect Tense of the Verb To Have
<li> The Present-Future Tense of the Verb To Have
<li> The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Verb To Have
<li> Requests and the Verb To Have
<li> Prefixes
7<li> Suffixes</ol>
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